Isnin, 29 Oktober 2007

Dunia kena sepakat tangani perubahan iklim

Oleh Azman Zakaria

KUALA LUMPUR: Datuk Seri Najib Razak berkata, usaha menangani fenomena perubahan iklim perlu menjadi keutamaan semua negara kerana kegagalan membendung gejala itu akan membawa bahaya kepada kehidupan manusia sejagat pada masa depan.

Timbalan Perdana Menteri berkata, fenomena itu adalah nyata dan mempunyai kesan meluas, manakala usaha menanganinya memerlukan tindakan sepadu serta sepakat sama ada dalam sesebuah negara mahupun global.

“Oleh kerana bumi adalah satu-satunya tempat tinggal manusia, berdiam diri dengan hanya menjadi penonton tanpa mengendahkannya bukan satu pilihan.

“Kita dikurniakan alam sekitar dan iklim yang membolehkan generasi kita hidup dalam keadaan sihat, bermakna dan produktif. Oleh itu adalah menjadi tanggungjawab moral kita untuk menyerahkan dunia yang sihat dan sesuai bagi kehidupan kepada generasi akan datang,” katanya ketika merasmikan Persidangan Serantau Mengenai Perubahan Iklim di sini, semalam.

Beliau berkata, adalah penting untuk mengakui hakikat bahawa negara memberi komitmen kepada usaha menangani perubahan iklim pada peringkat antarabangsa hanya jika usaha yang dilakukan itu selaras dengan kepentingan mereka.

Justeru, katanya, tahap pembangunan, keutamaan pembangunan, sumber semula jadi dan struktur politik mempengaruhi sama ada mereka berupaya melaksanakan usaha menangani perubahan iklim.

Katanya, ia bermakna sasaran yang berbeza perlu ditentukan supaya semua negara boleh membabitkan diri secara aktif manakala semua program pembangunan, terutama di negara membangun mesti mengambil kira aspek perubahan iklim.

Timbalan Perdana Menteri berkata, usaha untuk memajukan kedudukan ekonomi dan sosial serta dengan matlamat untuk membasmi kemiskinan akan secara serentak berupaya menangani masalah pelepasan gas rumah hijau.

“Bagaimanapun usaha pada peringkat nasional seperti itu memerlukan sokongan pada peringkat antarabangsa oleh negara maju menerusi bantuan bina upaya, pemindahan teknologi dan bantuan kewangan kepada negara membangun,” katanya.

Beliau berkata, perubahan iklim bukan saja menyebabkan cuaca melampau, tetapi mempunyai kesan negatif terhadap pertanian, kepelbagaian biologi, hutan, air bersih dan meningkatkan kes penyakit seperti malaria dan denggi.

Katanya, ia turut menyebabkan kawasan rendah dilanda banjir seperti dialami Malaysia pada Disember 2005 dan 2006 serta Januari tahun ini yang mengakibatkan kerugian RM4 bilion.

“Perubahan iklim tidak mengenal negara, tugas yang mendesak untuk kita sekarang ialah apa yang perlu kita lakukan pada peringkat nasional dan antarabangsa,” katanya.

Najib juga berkata, di peringkat antarabangsa, walaupun usaha dijalankan menerusi Konvensyen Rangka Kerja Bangsa-bangsa Bersatu mengenai Perubahan Iklim (UNFCC) dan Protokol Kyoto, namun pelepasan gas perindustrian terus meningkat.

Katanya, mengikut laporan penilaian keempat Panel Antara Kerajaan mengenai Perubahan Iklim (IPCC) yang dikeluarkan Februari lalu, cuaca 11 tahun kebelakangan ini adalah antara 12 tahun paling panas sejak 1850.

Malaysia katanya, komited melaksanakan pembangunan mapan dan antara inisiatif utama yang dilaksanakan kerajaan dalam menghadapi kepanasan global ialah dalam bidang tenaga yang diperbaharui.

Sabtu, 6 Oktober 2007

Air Quality Action Day Forecast in Pennsylvania Cities

by Trey Granger on August 6th, 2007


Harrisburg, PA - The Department of Environmental Protection and its regional air quality partnerships today announced an air quality action day is forecast for Tuesday, Aug. 7, in the Philadelphia, Pittsburgh and south central Susquehanna Valley regions.

The forecast says Tuesday will be code ORANGE for ozone in the Philadelphia area, and for fine particulate matter in the Pittsburgh and Susquehanna Valley areas.

The Philadelphia region includes Philadelphia, Bucks, Chester, Delaware and Montgomery counties;
The Pittsburgh region includes Allegheny, Armstrong, Beaver, Butler, Fayette, Washington and Westmoreland counties; and
The Susquehanna Valley region includes Cumberland, Lebanon, Dauphin, Lancaster and York counties.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s standardized air quality index uses colors to report daily air quality (green signifies good, yellow means moderate, orange represents unhealthy pollution levels for sensitive people, and red warns of unhealthy pollution levels for all). Air quality action days are declared at orange and red when fine particulate matter reaches unhealthy levels.

Ground-level ozone, a key component of smog, forms during warm weather when pollution from vehicles, industry, households and power plants “bakes” in the hot sun, making it hard for some people to breathe.

Fine particulate matter, or PM 2.5, has a diameter of less than 2.5 micrometers, about one-thirtieth the diameter of a human hair. Unlike ozone, particulate matter pollution can occur year-round. These particles can get deep into the lungs and cause significant health problems. PM 2.5 has been determined to be most closely associated with health effects related to increased hospitals admissions and emergency room visits for heart and lung disease, increased respiratory symptoms and disease, and decreased lung function.

The particles come from a wide range of sources — from power plants, industry, cars, trucks, buses, wood stoves and forest fires. Some particles are released when fuels are burned; others form in the atmosphere from reactions between gases released from power plants and factories.

On air quality action days, young children, the elderly and people with respiratory problems, such as asthma, emphysema and bronchitis, are especially vulnerable to the effects of air pollution and should limit outdoor activities.

To help keep the air healthy, residents and businesses are encouraged to voluntarily limit certain pollution-producing activities by taking the following steps:

Ride the bus or carpool to work;
Avoid burning leaves, trash and other materials;
Wash dishes and clothes with full loads; and
Save energy - do not overcool your home.
These forecasts are provided in conjunction with the Air Quality Partnership of the Delaware Valley, the Southwest Pennsylvania Air Quality Partnership, the Lehigh Valley/Berks Air Quality Partnership, and the Susquehanna Valley Air Quality Partnership.

For more information on ozone and fine particulate matter, visit http://www.depweb.state.pa.us, keyword: Ozone. For more information on the Air Quality Partnerships, view the air quality forecast, or receive free daily forecasts by e-mail, visit http://www.aqpartners.org. For more information on air quality in your area, visit Earth 911’s Air Quality page.

50 Things You Can Do For Cleaner Air

by Earth 911 Staff on April 2nd, 2007



Drive Less, Drive Smart
About half of the air pollution comes from cars and trucks. Two important ways to reduce air pollution are to drive less — even a little less — and to drive smart. Try combining driving with alternative modes of transportation:

1. Carpool.
2. Walk or ride a bicycle.
3. Shop by phone or mail.
4. Ride public transit.
5. Telecommute.

Driving smart keeps pollution at a minimum. *

6. Accelerate gradually.
7. Use cruise control on the highway.
8. Obey the speed limit.
9. Combine your errands into one trip.
10. Keep your car tuned and support the smog check program.
11. Don’t top off at the gas pumps.
12. Replace your car’s air filter.
13. Keep your tires properly inflated.
14. What about smoking vehicles? Contact the EPA’s Office of Air Quality Planning & Standards.

* What you do when you are stuck in traffic and not “driving” can be very important as well. Consider turning your engine off if you will be idling for long periods of time.

That’s not all. When shopping for your next car…

15. Look for the most efficient, lowest polluting model–or even use either a non-polluting car or zero emission vehicle. Visit these web sites for information that will help you identify clean and fuel efficient vehicles in any part of the country:

EPA’s Green vehicle Guide
The DOE/EPA Fuel Economy Guide
The U.S. Department of Energy Clean Cities Site
If you must drive on days with unhealthy air, drive your newest car. Newer cars generally pollute less than older models.

Choose Air-Friendly Products
Many products you use in your home, in the yard, or at the office are made with smog-forming chemicals that escape into the air. Here are a few ways to put a lid on products that pollute:

16. Select products that are water-based or have low amounts of volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
17. Use water-based paints. Look for paints labeled “zero-VOC.”
18. Paint with a brush, not a sprayer.
19. Store solvents in air-tight containers.
20. Use a push or electric lawn mower.
21. Start your barbecue briquettes with an electric probe, or use a propane or natural gas barbecue.

Save Energy
Saving energy helps reduce air pollution. Whenever you burn fossil fuel, you pollute the air. Use less gasoline, natural gas, and electricity (power plants burn fossil fuels to generate electricity):

22. Turn off the lights when you leave a room.
23. Replace energy hungry incandescent lights with fluorescent lighting.
24. Check with your utility company for energy conservation tips, like purchasing energy saving appliances.
25. Use a thermostat that automatically turns off the air conditioner or heater when you don’t need them.
26. Add insulation to your home.
27. Use a fan instead of air conditioning.
28. Use an EPA-approved wood burning stove or fireplace insert.
29. Heat small meals in a microwave oven.
30. Insulate your water heater.
31. Install low flow showerheads.
32. Dry your clothes on a clothesline.

Waste Not
It takes energy to make and sell the products we use. Here are ways to cut energy use, reduce air pollution, and save money.

33. Choose recycled products.
34. Choose products with recyclable packaging.
35. Reuse paper bags.
36. Recycle paper, plastics, and metals.
37. Print and photocopy on both sides of the paper.

Watch out for the small stuff
When you breathe, very small particles — such as dust, soot, and acid droplets — can slip past your lung’s natural defense system. These particles get stuck deep in your lungs and may cause problems — more asthma attacks, bronchitis and other lung diseases, decreased resistance to infections, and even premature death for the elderly or sick. Here are a few things you can do to reduce particulate matter pollution and protect yourself:

38. Don’t use your wood stove or fireplace on days with unhealthy air.
39. Avoid using leaf blowers and other types of equipment that raise a lot of dust. Use a rake or broom instead.
40. Drive slowly on unpaved roads.
41. Drive less, particularly on days with unhealthy air.
42. Avoid vigorous physical activity on days with unhealthy air.

Know The Inside Story
Air pollution is a problem indoors and out. Most people spend at least 80 percent of their lives indoors. Here are some ways you can reduce pollution in your home, office or school:

43. Don’t smoke. Send smokers outside.
44. Products such as cleaning agents, paints, and glues often contain harmful chemicals. Use them outdoors or with plenty of ventilation indoors.
45. Use safer products, such as baking soda instead of harsher chemical cleaners.
46. Don’t heat your home with a gas cooking stove.
47. Have your gas appliances and heater regularly inspected and maintained.
48. Clean frequently to remove dust and molds.

Visit EPA’s Indoor Air Quality Home Page for more information.

Speak Up For Clean Air
Do what you can to reduce air pollution. It will make a difference. Use your civic influence to improve regional and national air pollution standards:

49. Write to your local newspaper. Support action for healthy air.
50. Let your elected representative know you support action for clean air.

U.S. Imposes Highest Acid Rain Fine Ever

by Trey Granger on September 20th, 2007


Washington, D.C. – In a landmark settlement filed today, East Kentucky Power Cooperative, a coal-fired electric utility, has agreed to pay an $11.4 million penalty to resolve violations of the Clean Air Act’s acid rain program, the Department of Justice and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency announced today.

As part of today’s settlement, the U.S. is seeking court-approval for the highest fine ever under the Clean Air Act’s acid rain program. The Commonwealth of Kentucky joined in today’s consent decree.

The settlement requires that the company take steps to reduce approximately 400 tons of harmful emissions each year and offset another approximately 20,000 tons of emissions released from its Clark County, Ky. facility without a permit.

“We enforce the Clean Air Act to protect people’s health,” said Granta Nakayama, Assistant Administrator for EPA’s Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance. “This settlement shows that when you violate the law, EPA will be there to make you pay.”

“East Kentucky Power Cooperative has agreed to install pollution control equipment as well as monitor and reduce emissions harmful to our health and the environment,” said Acting Assistant Attorney General Ronald J. Tenpas for the Justice Department’s Environment and Natural Resources Division. “This is an important agreement that has true benefits to the people of Kentucky.”

The government estimated that the utility’s Dale Generating Station emitted over 15,000 tons of sulfur dioxide and 4,000 tons of nitrogen oxide without a permit from approximately 2000-2005. In addition, the government alleged the utility exceeded the federal annual emission rate for nitrogen oxides.

The utility is also required to apply for an acid rain permit, continuously monitor sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, and install and operate nitrogen oxide controls. These pollution controls will reduce annual nitrogen oxide emissions by approximately 400 tons per year.

Coal-fired power plants are allowed to emit sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides in the form of “allowances,” which are granted under federal or state acid rain permits based on a national annual emissions cap.

If a utility emits less, it can sell unused allowances to other utilities, or save them for use later. If it emits more, it must purchase allowances from other utilities and surrender those allowances to EPA.

In this case, East Kentucky is required to purchase and retire allowances representing 20,000 tons of emissions, which represents their emissions during the period of noncompliance.

Coal-fired plants release sulfur dioxides and nitrogen oxides, which are a primary cause of acid rain that harms trees and lakes and impairs visibility. Nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxides cause severe respiratory problems, contribute to childhood asthma, and contribute to smog and haze. Emissions from power plants can drift significant distances downwind and degrade air quality in nearby areas.

Today’s agreement allows the company to pay the $11.4 million penalty over six years. East Kentucky will also pay additional penalties if it meets certain thresholds of financial performance.

Last July, East Kentucky agreed to install pollution controls estimated to cost $650 million and to pay a $750,000 penalty to resolve violations of the new source review provisions of the Clean Air Act at the Dale facility and two other plants.

Today’s proposed agreement, lodged in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Kentucky in Lexington, is subject to a 30-day public comment period and final court approval. A copy of the consent decree is available on the Department of Justice Web site.

Smog Thinner, Skies Healthier over Eastern U.S.

by Trey Granger on September 27th, 2007

Washington, D.C. — Smog-forming emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) from power plants and industry have declined significantly in 19 eastern states and the District of Columbia. The NOx Budget Trading Program (NBP) annual report, released today, indicates that summertime NOx emissions were seven percent lower than in 2005, 60 percent lower than in 2000 and 74 percent lower than in 1990.

“The proof is in the numbers. By cutting smog-forming emissions, 55 million Americans in the eastern United States are breathing easier thanks to President Bush’s clean air policies,” said EPA Administrator Stephen L. Johnson. “NOx reductions are not just good news for the health of our environment and the health of our residents, they are good news for the health of our economy.”

The reduction of NOx – a precursor to ground-level ozone, or “smog” – has helped reduce ground-level ozone concentrations an average of 5-8 percent in the eastern United States in the last three years. Four out of five eastern ozone non-attainment areas now meet the current standard.

The EPA report tracks summertime emission reductions from 1990 to 2006 and assesses the impact of these reductions on ozone air quality in the eastern region. The largest NOx reductions occurred in the mid-central area of the eastern United States including Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio, and West Virginia.

The NOx Budget Trading Program is flexible and lets electric generating units choose the best options to reduce NOx emissions during ozone season for their facilities. Options include adding NOx emission-control technologies, replacing existing controls with more advanced technologies or optimizing existing controls. This flexibility, and an active NOx allowance market, has helped lead to an over 99 percent compliance rate with the program’s requirements

INDOOR EMISSIONS FROM HOUSEHOLD COAL COMBUSTION CARCINOGENIC: WOMEN IN LOW- OR MEDIUM-RESOURCE COUNTRIES MOST EXPOSED 2


INDOOR EMISSIONS FROM HOUSEHOLD COAL COMBUSTION CARCINOGENIC: WOMEN IN LOW- OR MEDIUM-RESOURCE COUNTRIES MOST EXPOSED


An IARC Monographs Working Group has concluded that indoor emissions from household combustion of coal are carcinogenic to humans (Group 11), after a thorough review of the published scientific evidence.
At the same time, the Working Group concluded that indoor emissions from household combustion of biomass fuel2 (mostly wood) are probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A1).
To complement these evaluations of indoor air pollutants, the Working Group also assessed the potential carcinogenicity of emissions from high-temperature frying.
These emissions were also evaluated as probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A1).
A summary of the IARC evaluation is published in the Policy Watch section of the December issue of The Lancet Oncology, and the results will be presented at the Society for Risk analysis Annual Meeting in Baltimore (USA) on December 4.

Risk reduction measures

Exposure to polluted indoor air from combustion of wood or coal or from frying can be greatly reduced by adequate ventilation, e.g. through the construction of a chimney, as has been shown in China. This seems an obvious first public health measure to start reducing the lung cancer burden for large parts of the world's population. Changing cooking and heating methods should also be considered.
The Working Group, comprising 19 scientists from 8 countries, was convened by the IARC Monographs Programme of the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), the cancer research agency of the World Health Organization.

Major public health importance
"This new IARC Monograph (volume 95) addresses exposures that are experienced daily by hundreds of millions world-wide," said Dr Peter Boyle, Director of IARC. It is estimated that approximately half the world’s population uses wood or coal for cooking and heating, often in poorly ventilated, and often unventilated, spaces. For instance, in Sub-Saharan Africa, the percentage of households using solid fuels climbs to over 90%. "It is therefore of enormous public health importance that we call attention to the health risks of what is daily practice for so many people", he continued.

Coal risks not new
Occupational exposure to coal combustion products has long been known to cause lung cancer. Products of incomplete combustion contain respirable particles and many organic chemicals, including known human carcinogens such as benzo[a]pyrene, formaldehyde and benzene. Average indoor concentrations of fine particles (< 10 micrometres) can be as high as several milligrams per cubic metre, with peak concentrations ten times higher. On the basis of conclusive epidemiological evidence, the Working Group evaluated indoor emissions from household combustion of coal as “carcinogenic to humans” (Group 11). Dr Boyle stressed that “There are parts of the world where women and young children especially are exposed to these high levels of indoor air pollution for most of their day. Fortunately, these exposure levels can be greatly lowered, and the cancer risk reduced.”

Wood smoke a probable carcinogen…
While the association of emissions from coal combustion with lung cancer was relatively clear-cut, the evidence of increased cancer risk associated with emissions from biomass combustion (mainly from wood) was less studied : these emissions were classified as “probably carcinogenic to humans” (Group 2A1).

… and so is high-temperature frying
To complete this review of indoor air pollution, the Working Group evaluated the potential carcinogenicity of various ways of frying: stir-frying, deep-frying and panfrying, which involve heating oil to high temperatures, are practiced worldwide and are particularly widespread in East Asia. On the basis of limited data in humans and conclusive evidence in experimental animals, the Working Group concluded that emissions from high-temperature frying are “probably carcinogenic to humans” (Group 2A1). This classification was supported by a wealth of experimental data on the mutagenicity of emissions of cooking oil at temperatures around 230 degrees Celsius. The frying method or type of oil used did not seem to have a big influence on the results of the epidemiological studies.

Evaluating carcinogenic risks to humans
The IARC Monographs Programme on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans has traditionally focused its attention on the evaluation of occupational and lifestyle exposures in populations of the developed, industrialized world. This new monograph deals with an exposure that is widespread in low- and medium-resource countries, and reflects how the Monographs Programme has broadened its scope and reach.

1 See the definitions in the Appendix below
2 Biomass includes wood, charcoal, dung and unprocessed vegetal residue.


APPENDIX: ABOUT THE IARC MONOGRAPHS

INDOOR EMISSIONS FROM HOUSEHOLD COAL COMBUSTION CARCINOGENIC: WOMEN IN LOW- OR MEDIUM-RESOURCE COUNTRIES MOST EXPOSED 1

INDOOR EMISSIONS FROM HOUSEHOLD COAL COMBUSTION CARCINOGENIC: WOMEN IN LOW- OR MEDIUM-RESOURCE COUNTRIES MOST EXPOSED

APPENDIX: ABOUT THE IARC MONOGRAPHS

What are the IARC Monographs?

The IARC Monographs identify environmental factors that can increase the risk of human cancer. These include chemicals, complex mixtures, occupational exposures, physical and biological agents, and lifestyle factors. National health agencies use this information as scientific support for their actions to prevent exposure to potential carcinogens.
Interdisciplinary working groups of expert scientists review the published studies and evaluate the weight of the evidence that an agent can increase the risk of cancer. The principles, procedures, and scientific criteria that guide the evaluations are described in the Preamble to the IARC Monographs.
Since 1971, more than 900 agents have been evaluated, of which approximately 400 have been identified as carcinogenic or potentially carcinogenic to humans.

Definitions

Group 1: The agent (mixture) is carcinogenic to humans.

The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are carcinogenic to humans.
This category is used when there is sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in humans. Exceptionally, an agent (mixture) may be placed in this category when evidence of carcinogenicity in humans is less than sufficient but there is sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals and strong evidence in exposed humans that the agent (mixture) acts through a relevant mechanism of carcinogenicity.

Group 2

This category includes agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances for which, at one extreme, the degree of evidence of carcinogenicity in humans is almost sufficient, as well as those for which, at the other extreme, there are no human data but for which there is evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals. Agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances are assigned to either group 2A (probably carcinogenic to humans) or group 2B (possibly carcinogenic to humans) on the basis of epidemiological and experimental evidence of carcinogenicity and other relevant data.

Group 2A: The agent (mixture) is probably carcinogenic to humans.

The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are probably carcinogenic to humans.
This category is used when there is limited evidence of carcinogenicity in humans and sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals. In some cases, an agent (mixture) may be classified in this category when there is inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in humans and sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals and strong evidence that the carcinogenesis is mediated by a mechanism that also operates in humans. Exceptionally, an agent, mixture or exposure circumstance may be classified in this category solely on the basis of limited evidence of carcinogenicity in humans.

Group 2B: The agent (mixture) is possibly carcinogenic to humans.

The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are possibly carcinogenic to humans.
This category is used for agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances for which there is limited evidence of carcinogenicity in humans and less than sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals. It may also be used when there is inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in humans but there is sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals. In some instances, an agent, mixture or exposure circumstance for which there is inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in humans but limited evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals together with supporting evidence from other relevant data may be placed in this group.

Group 3: The agent (mixture or exposure circumstance) is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans.

This category is used most commonly for agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances for which the evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans and inadequate or limited in experimental animals. Exceptionally, agents (mixtures) for which the evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans but sufficient in experimental animals may be placed in this category when there is strong evidence that the mechanism of carcinogenicity in experimental animals does not operate in humans.

Group 4: The agent (mixture) is probably not carcinogenic to humans.

This category is used for agents or mixtures for which there is evidence suggesting lack of carcinogenicity in humans and in experimental animals. In some instances, agents or mixtures for which there is inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in humans but evidence suggesting lack of carcinogenicity in experimental animals, consistently and strongly supported by a broad range of other relevant data, may be classified in this group.

futher in next post~

Indoor air pollution (Health Effects)- WHO




Health effects
Acute lower respiratory infections
There is consistent evidence that exposure to biomass smoke increases the risk of acute lower respiratory infections (ALRI) in childhood, particularly pneumonia. Globally, ALRI represent the single most important cause of death in children under 5 years and account for at least 2 million deaths annually in this age group.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Indoor air pollution is considered a risk factor for chronic bronchitis (CB) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD - progressive and incompletely reversible airflow obstruction). The association between exposure to biomass smoke and CB/COPD has been particularly well established for women.

Lung cancer
Smoke from both coal and biomass contains substantial amounts of carcinogens (chemical substances known to increase the risk of cancer). A consistent body of evidence has shown that women exposed to smoke from coal fires in the home have an elevated risk of lung cancer. This effect has not been demonstrated among populations using biomass, but the presence of carcinogens in the smoke implies that the risk may be present.

Other health outcomes
There is emerging evidence which suggests that indoor air pollution in developing countries may also increase the risk of other important child and adult health problems, although this evidence is tentative and based on fewer studies. It includes conditions such as:

low birthweight and perinatal mortality (still births and deaths in the first week of life)
asthma
otitis media (middle ear infection) and other acute upper respiratory infections
tuberculosis
nasopharyngeal cancer
laryngeal cancer
cataract (blindness)
cardiovascular disease
Status of evidence
The table summarizes the status of evidence on the health effects of indoor air pollution.




- The health effects of indoor air pollution exposure in developing countries
Publication by the World Health Organization, 2002.

- Indoor air pollution in developing countries: a major environmental and public health challenge
Article in the Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 2000.

Health impacts of indoor air pollution- WHO

Indoor cooking and heating with biomass fuels (agricultural residues, dung, straw, wood) or coal produces high levels of indoor smoke that contains a variety of health-damaging pollutants.

There is consistent evidence that exposure to indoor air pollution can lead to acute lower respiratory infections in children under five, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and lung cancer (where coal is used) in adults.

Indoor air pollution- WHO


More than three billion people worldwide continue to depend on solid fuels, including biomass fuels (wood, dung, agricultural residues) and coal, for their energy needs.

Cooking and heating with solid fuels on open fires or traditional stoves results in high levels of indoor air pollution. Indoor smoke contains a range of health-damaging pollutants, such as small particles and carbon monoxide, and particulate pollution levels may be 20 times higher than accepted guideline values.

According to The world health report 2002 indoor air pollution is responsible for 2.7% of the global burden of disease.

WHO’s Programme on Indoor Air Pollution
To combat this substantial and growing burden of disease, WHO has developed a comprehensive programme to support developing countries. WHO's Programme on Indoor Air Pollution focuses on:

- Research and evaluation
- Capacity building
- Evidence for policy-makers

ANDA SEBAGAI INDIVIDU BOLEH MEMBUAT PERUBAHAN !!!

ANDA SEBAGAI INDIVIDU BOLEH MEMBUAT PERUBAHAN


1. LAKUKAN PERUBAHAN DI JALAN RAYA


Fikirkan semula jenis sistem pengangkutan yang hendak digunakan.
Amalkan berkongsi kereta / kenderaan bagi perjalanan yang mempunyai tujuan sama
Pertimbangkan sistem pengangkutan awam, berbasikal ataupun berjalan kaki;
Selenggara kenderaan dan pastikan keadaan angin tayar yang baik bagi menjimatkan kos bahan api ;
Pandu kenderaan dengan bijak. Jangan biarkan kenderaan statik dengan enjin kereta! Tutup enjin kenderaan sekiranya tidak bergerak walaupun sekejap – mampu menjimatkan bahan api;
Isi tangki minyak kenderaan pada waktu yang lebih sejuk bagi mengelakkan bahan api terperuwap ke udara .
Gunakan ‘non-ozone depleting refrigerant’ untuk sistem penghawa dingin kenderaan ;
Pastikan bahan pendingin kenderaan dikitar atau diguna semula semasa servis kenderaan. Perbaiki kebocoran sistem penghawa dingin kenderaan ;


2. LAKUKAN PERUBAHAN DI RUMAH


o Gunakan bahan kimia yang terdapat di rumah secara bijak

o Gunakan bahan ‘non-ODS, low VOC paints and solvents’. Pastikan terlebih dahulu membaca panduan penggunaan dan pelupusan bahan tersebut.

o Perbaiki kebocoran sistem penghawa dingin rumah bagi mengelakkan bahan ODS mencemarkan udara;

o Beli sistem penghawa dingin yang mesra alam dan tidak menipiskan laipsan ozon ;

o Jimatkan penggunaan kuasa elektrik ;

o Amalkan pengurusan bahan buangan dengan bijak. Kitar semula tin aluminum, kertas dan kaca ;

o Beli produk yang diperbuat daripada bahan-bahan kitar semula;

o Hentikan pembakaran terbuka.



3. SEKTOR PERINDUSTRIAN BOLEH MEMBUAT PERUBAHAN


Amalkan teknologi bersih ;
Jimat penggunaan kuasa elektrik. Gunakan dan hasilkan produk yang tidak menipiskan lapisan ozon.
Jalankan servis dan penyelenggaraan ke atas mesin-mesin pembuatan.
Hentikan pembakaran terbuka.
Amalkan Teknik Pembakaran Sifar (sektor pertanian).
Kurangkan penggunaan racun makhluk perosak yang tidak mesra alam (sektor pertanian).

Langkah-langkah Kawalan PENCEMARAN UDARA oleh JAS

JAS menguatkuasakan undang-undang yang diperuntukkan di bawah Akta Kualiti Alam Sekeliling 1974 dan Bahagian IV Akta Zon Eksklusif Ekonomi 1984 ;


Bagi memastikan prestasi pematuhan industri, JAS sentiasa mengadakan lawatan penguatkuasaan ke kilang-kilang/punca tetap.


Melaksanakan operasi asap hitam terhadap pengguna-pengguna kenderaan di jalanraya ;


Kemudahan Yang Diluluskan ;


Statistik Penguatkuasaan .


JAS dari masa ke semasa mengadakan rondaan darat dan udara untuk menyiasat / mengesan aktiviti pecemaran udara


Pengawasan kualiti udara secara berterusan (24jam) bagi mengesan sebarang perubahan kepada kandungan kimia udara ambien yang boleh membahayakan kesihatan manusia.


JAS menganjurkan beberapa siri program kempen kesedaran berkaitan lapisan ozon kepada orang awam dan sektor industri ;


Menjalankan kajian kerjasama dengan pihak-pihak berkaitan bagi mengawal pencemaran udara ;


Terlibat dalam mesyuarat / protokol / komitmen dalam penjagaan alam sekitar di peringkat antarabangsa.

PUNCA PENCEMARAN UDARA MALAYSIA- autoriti Jabatan Alam Sekitar, Malaysia

1. PENDAHULUAN


Bumi secara semulajadinya menerima beban pencemaran udara daripada fenomena alam semulajadi seperti letupan gunung berapi, pembakaran hutan akibat dari panahan petir dan sebagainya. Walaubagaimanapun, Bumi mempunyai 'kaedah semulajadi' bagi menangani pencemaran semulajadi ini. Apabila manusia mula menjalankan aktiviti perindustrian mahupun aktiviti harian, pencemaran alam sekitar semakin berleluasa dan Bumi tidak mampu lagi 'memikul' beban pencemaran tersebut.


2. AKTIVITI PERINDUSTRIAN & PEMBANGUNAN


Perkembangan ekonomi Malaysia bergantung kepada industri pembuatan, terutamanya elektronik, kimia dan juga getah. Namun kadar pengeluaran yang kian meningkat telah menyebabkan penambahan pada pelepasan pencemaran gas organik dan bukan organik, bahan kimia dan juga habuk. Pelbagai jenis industri menghasilkan bahan cemar yang berbeza. Contohnya industri kimia melepaskan pencemar yang mengandungi pelbagai kompaun yang berasaskan nitrogen dan sulfur, manakala kilang penapis minyak mengeluarkan asap yang mengandungi sulfur dioksida dan hidrokarbon. Industri logam pula bertanggungjawab mencemarkan udara dengan sulfur dioksida dan habuk toksik. Sesetengah bahan pencemar, terutamanya karbon dioksida adalah merupakan gas rumah hijau yang amat memudaratkan boleh mengakibatkan perubahan iklim seluruh dunia.


Selain pelepasan bahan toksik ke udara, pembangunan premis atau zon industri tanpa perancangan teliti dan kawalan akan mengakibatkan pencemaran bunyi dan getaran. Aktiviti di tapak pembinaan dan bunyi kipas ekzos di kilang-kilang adalah antara contoh-contoh aktiviti yang menghasilkan paras bunyi yang tinggi.



3. KENDERAAN MOTOR


Masyarakat moden amat bergantung kepada pengangkutan bermotor seperti kereta, lori dan keretapi. Setiap pergerakan kenderaan motor menggunakan tenaga yang banyak dan hampir kesemuanya dihasilkan dengan membakar bahan api fosil, yang menghasilkan asap dan bunyi bising yang membawa kesan buruk kepada keadaan setempat. Kualiti udara persekitaran amat bergantung kepada jenis sistem pengangkutan yang digunakan, jenis sumber tenaga, tahap teknologi enjin dan juga jumlah tenaga yang diperlukan. Di dalam sektor pengangkutan, kenderaan motor adalah penyumbang utama kepada pencemaran udara. Penggunaan pengangkutan awam akan mengurangkan impak pencemaran ke atas alam sekitar. Dalam tahun 2004, 14 juta kenderaan berdaftar digunakan di Malaysia, angka ini dua kali ganda berbanding dengan sedekad lalu. Angka ini akan terus meningkat dari tahun ke tahun dengan meningkatnya pendapatan, pemindahan luar bandar ke bandar dan kekurangan kemudahan pengangkutan awam yang cekap.



4. PENJANAAN KUASA


Hampir kesemua tenaga elektrik dihasilkan dengan membakar bahan api fosil seperti gas asli, minyak dan arang batu. Loji-loji janakuasa jenis ini mempunyai tahap kecekepan antara 35 dan 40 peratus di mana tenaga selebihnya bertukar menjadi haba. Pada masa ini, Malaysia menjana 86 peratus keperluan tenaga elektriknya melalui loji janakuasa konvensional manakala baki 14 peratus dihasilkan oleh stesen janakuasa hidro.



5. AKTIVITI HARIAN


Isi rumah menyumbang kepada pencemaran melalui penggunaan tenaga untuk mesin dan perkakas elektrik seperti peti sejuk. Peti sejuk dan penyaman udara bukan sahaja menggunakan banyak tenaga tetapi alat-alat ini juga mencemarkan udara apabila cecair penyejuk yang digunakan melepaskan Klorofluorokarban (CFC) ke udara seterusnya menipiskan lapisan ozon. Peralatan rumah seperti penyembur aerosol yang mengandungi CFC juga adalah punca pencemaran udara.



6. PEMBAKARAN TERBUKA


Pembakaran pokok tua di kawasan ladang untuk tujuan penanaman semula banyak partikel jelaga. Partikel jelaga ini boleh diterbangkan pada jarak yang jauh oleh angin dan inilah punca jerebu yang kerap menyelubunyi ruang udara Malaysia. Api dari pembakaran ini bukan sahaja menghasilkan asap yang mencemarkan tetapi ia juga memusnahkan segala fauna dan flora di sekitarnya

Pengenalan Kepada Udara- menurut autoriti Jabatan Alam Sekitar, Malaysia

1. APAKAH ATMOSFERA ?

Atmosfera ialah lapisan gas yang menyelaputi bumi. Ia kekal dan stabil di sekelilingi bumi kerana graviti. Ia mempunyai ketebalan 100km. Walaupun ia agak nampak tebal, namun sekiranya dibandingkan dengan ketebalan bumi iaitu 6,400km, nisbahnya adalah sama seperti buah pic dan kulitnya. Atmosfera atau lebuh dikenali sebagai udara adalah campuran pelbagai jenis gas, partikal pepejal dan wap air. Udara mempunyai ketumpatan yang tinggi di paras permukaan bumi yang kita tinggal tetapi ketumpatannya menjadi semakin rendah apabila semakin bergerak tinggi ke atas atmosfera. Planet-planet lain juga mempunyai atmosfera tetapi setakat yang diketahui tiada yang mampu menampung kehidupan.


2. KANDUNGAN UDARA BERSIH

Kandungan utama udara di atmosfera ialah Nitrogen (78%), Oksigen (21%), dan lain-lain gas (1%). Oksigen adalah satu keperluan asas bagi hamper semua benda hidup. Kesemua elemen lain yang ditonjolkan di dalam graf di bawah juga memainkan peranan yang penting dalam menampung kehidupan di bumi. Selain itu, air juga merupakan satu komponen atmosfera yang penting dan ia hadir dalam bentuk wap air yang tersejat dari permukaan Bumi. Daripada wap air ini terbentuklah awan yang akhirnya mengembalikan air ke muka bumi sebagai hujan atau salji. Komponen lain dalam udara ialah partikel pepejal yang halus. Partikel-partikel ini dikenali sebagai ‘aerosol’ dan ia bertindak sebagai condenser membolehkan wap air terpeluap di sekelilingnya dan membolehkan pembentukan awan. Setiap kali bahan pencemar dilepaskan ke armosfera, bererti kita mengganggu kestabilan semulajadi planet kita.


3. BUNYI DAN GETARAN

Bunyi adalah sebahagian daripada alam dan bergerak dalam udara. Bunyi bising adalah pencemaran kerana ia adalah satu bentuk kacau ganggu kepada semua benda hidup. Semua struktur yang bergetar menghasilkan bunyi. Julat mendengar bagi seorang manusia normal dan sihat adalah masing-masing 20 Hz sehingga 20,000 Hz dan 0 dB sehingga 130 dB. Paras bunyi yang melebihi 130 dB akan menyebabkan deria pendengaran manusia mula berasa sakit. Paras getaran bangunan kurang 3 mm/s adalah selamat , manakala paras getaran melebihi 30 mm/s akan menyebabkan kerosakan infrastruktur yang sangat teruk dan besar.


4. STRUKTUR LAPISAN ATMOSFERA
Jika anda mendongak ke langit pada hari yang cerah selalunya anda akan melihat langit yang biru dengan kepulan putih awan terapung-apung dan bergerak perlahan-lahan. Apa yang anda tidak boleh lihat ialah struktur menegak atmosfera yang terdiri daripada 4 lapisan yang dipanggil troposfera, stratosfera, mesosfera dan termosfera. Suhu udara akan meningkat atau menurun di setiap lapisan dan sifatnya berubah di setiap lapisan. Troposfera mempunyai ketebalan dari 9 hingga 16 kilometer dan kebanyakan aktiviti cuaca seperti pembentukan awan dan rebut berlaku di zon ini. Suhu menurun mengikut ketinggian di lapisan ini.


5. PERNAFASAN & OKSIGEN
Dengan setiap nafas yang kita sedut, sel-sel badan diberi tenaga untuk bergerak, membina dan mengganda bagi memastikan kita terus hidup. Udara memasuki paru-paru melalui hidung dan mulut. Di dalam paru-paru ianya diserap ke dalam aliran darah dan kemuidan dibawa ke seluruh badan. Karbon dioksida kemudiannya dipulangkan ke paru-paru dan dikeluarkan daripada badan kita apabila nafas dihembus. Tanpa tumbuhan yang menghasilkan oksigen, manusia dan haiwan tidak boleh terus hidup. Oleh kerana itu kita harus memastikan tumbuh-tumbuhan dipelihara dengan baik.


6. FOTOSINTESIS & OKSIGEN
Fotosintesis yang berlaku dalam tumbuh-tumbuhan berdaun hijau dengan bantuan klorofil adalah satu keajaiban. Ia bermula apabila tumbuhan dan rumpai menyerap cahaya matahari dan menukarnya kepada tenaga kimia. Karbon dioksida dari atmosfera dan air kemudiannya ditukarkan kepada gula manakala oksigen pula dihasilkan sebagai bahan buangan. Tumbuh-tumbuhan memerlukan gula untuk membesar dan akhirnya menjadi makanan untuk manusia dan haiwan.


7. KESAN RUMAH HIJAU SEMULAJADI

Dengan “kesan rumah hijau semulajadi”, suhu udara di permukaan bumi dikekalkan pada purata +150C. Tanpa kesan ini, kesejukan ketara pada tahap -180C akan menjadi satu kebiasaan dan kepelbagaian hidupan di biosfera tidak mungkin boleh berkembang. Gelombang pendek pancaran matahari menembusi bumi dengan kuasa yang hebat. Atmosfera, kepulan awan permukaan bumi memantulkan satu pertiga daripada tenaga radiasi ini. Selebihnya menembusi atmosfera lalu memanaskan bumi. Bumi kemudiannya memancarkan kembali tenaga in sebagai radiasi infra merah. Gas surih ataupun gas rumah hijau yang terdapat di atmosfera, terutamanya wap air, karbon dioksida dan metana menyerap gelombang panjang ini dan memancarkannya kembali ke angkasa lepas dan juga kembali ke muka bumi. Dengan ini ia bertindak seperti seperti kepingan kaca pada sebuah rumah hijau, dan permukaan bumi akan menjadi lebih panas. Kesan daripada aktiviti industri di peringkat global mengakibatkan bertambahnya kandungan gas rumah hijau di atmosfera dalam dekad yang lepas. Akibatnya ialah “kesan rumah hijau tambahan” yang mungkin akan mengubah iklim bumi.


8. PERISAI MATAHARI

Matahari memancarkan tenaga dalam bentuk haba (radiasi infra merah), dan cahaya yang boleh dilihat atau radiasi ultra ungu (UV). UV terpancar dengan gelombang yang pendek dan bertenaga tinggi dan diklasifikasikan sebagai UVC, UVB dan UVA. UVC sangat merbahaya dan mampu membunuh semua kehidupan termasuk bacteria dan lain-lain mikro organisma. UVA boleh menggelapkan kulit manakala UVB bertanggungjawab membakar kulit dan boleh menyebabkan penyakit kanser kulit. Kita bernasib baik kerana UVC diserap sepenuhnya oleh oksigen yang berada di atas lapisan stratosfera. Kebanyakan UVB diserap oleh ozon yang berada di stratosfera selagi mana ianya cukup tebal untuk fungsi tersebut. Hanya Pancaran UVA boleh menembusi atmosfera dengan mudah dan tanpa disekat.

PERATURAN KAWALAN PENCEMARAN UDARA DI BAWAH AKTA KUALITI ALAM SEKELILING 1974

1. SENARAI PERATURAN – PERATURAN KAWALAN PENCEMARAN UDARA DI BAWAH AKTA KUALITI ALAM SEKELILING 1974




Peraturan-Peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Udara Bersih) 1978;


Peraturan-Peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Kawalan Kepekatan Plumbum ) 1987;


Peraturan-Peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Bunyi Bising Kenderaan Motor) 1985;


Perintah Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Larangan ke Atas Penggunaan Klorofluokarbon dan Lain-Lain Gas Sebagai Propelan dan Agen Pengembang) 1993;


Peraturan-Peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Kawalan Pelepasan Daripada Enjin Diesel) 1996;


Peraturan-Peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Kawalan Pelepasan Daripada Enjin Petrol) 1996;


Peraturan-Peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Pengurusan Refrigeran) 1999;


Peraturan-Peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Pengurusan Halon) 1999;


Kaedah-kaedah Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Mengkompaun Kesalahan-Kesalahan) (Pembakaran Terbuka) 2000;


Perintah Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Perwakilan Kuasa) (Penyiasatan Pembakaran Terbuka) 2000;


Perintah Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Perwakilan Kuasa) (Pengurusan Halon) 2000;


Perintah Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Perwakilan Kuasa) (Perbadanan Putrajaya)2002;


Perintah Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Aktiviti Yang Diisytiharkan) (Pembakaran Terbuka) 2003


Peraturan-Peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Kawalan Pelepasan Daripada Motosikal) 2003;


Peraturan-Peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Dioksin Dan Furan) 2004.




SENARAI GARISPANDUAN BERKAITAN PENCEMARAN UDARA




The Planning Guidelines for Environmental Noise Limits and Control (2004);


The Guidelines for Noise Labeling and Emission Limits of Outdoor Source (2004);


The Planning Guidelines for Vibration Limits and Control (2004).

MALAYSIA'S ODS HISTORY / MAIN EVENTS

MALAYSIA'S ODS HISTORY / MAIN EVENTS



October 1985


Establishment of the National Steering Committee (NSC) for the Protection of the Ozone Layer.

5 May 1989


Malaysia Participated in the First Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol, Helsinki, Finland.

29 August 1989


Ratified the Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.

20-23 February 1990


International Conference on Tropical Ozone and Atmospheric Change, Penang.

20 June 1990


Malaysia elected as a member of EXCOM for the year 1991-1993 in the Second Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol, London.

23 March 1991


Malaysia's First ODS Country Programme and Phase-Out Project Approved by the Multilateral Fund.

18 June 1991


Malaysia elected as Vice President of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol in Nairobi for the year 1992.

8 November 1992


First Phase-Out Project Agreement Signed by EPU.

8 January 1993


Launching of Ozone Monitoring Station by Meteorological Services Department (MSD).

25 February 1993


Launching of Joint Initiative on Elimination of ODS between the Government, USEPA and JEMA.

24-26 April 1993


KL-USEPA Conference on the Elimination of ODS Solvent Industry.

5 August 1993


Malaysia Ratified the London Amendment (1990).

18 September 1993


Announcement on Control of ODS Under Application Permit System.

23 October 1993


Malaysia elected as Chairman of the Executive Committee of the Multilateral Fund in Bangkok for the year 1994. Malaysia reelected as a member of the EXCOM for the year 1994.

3 November 1993


Malaysia Ratified the Copenhagen Amendment (1992).

31 December 1993


Gazettment of Environmental Quality (Prohibition on the Use of Chlorofluorocarbons and Halon and Other Gases as Propellants and Blowing Agents) Order 1993.

21 June 1994


Launching of Agreement on MAC Recycling Project.

6 October 1994


Malaysia elected as Vice President of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol in Nairobi for the year 1995.

20 December 1994


Inaugaral Malaysia Ozone Layer Protection Award (MOLPA).

28 October 1999


Gazetted of Environmental Quality (Refrigeration Management) Regulations 1999.

28 October 1999


Gazetted of Environmental Quality (Halon Management) Regulations 1999.

5 October 2001


Malaysia Ratified the 1997 Montreal Amendment and 1999 Beijing Amendment.

25 Mac 2003


36th Meeting of National Steering Committee on Ozone Protection.

19 May 2003
Working Group on MDI.

13 June 2003


Briefing on Refrigerant and Halon Management Regulation to PETRONAS, Kuala Lumpur.

6-7 July 2003


ASEAN Working Group on Multilateral Environmental Agreements, Kuala Lumpur.

7-11 July 2003
23rd OEWG Meeting, Montreal.

31 July 2003


Seminar ODS Phase-Out Programme (NCFC/P) 2000-2010, Putrajaya.

27-28 August 2003


Refrigerant Recovery, Reclaimation and Recycling Training Course, Shah Alam.

13-19 September 2003


MEAs Workshop – Compliance and Enforcement, Colombo.

15-25 September 2003
Dissemination on ODS in Formations.

25 September 2003

Meeting with ODS Chemical Supplier Individually.

26 September 2003
Meeting with Foam Sector.

27 September 2003
Meeting with CFC Distributors.

29 September –

2 October 2003
Asia Pasific Methyl Bromide Alternative/ Phosphine, Ho Chi Minh City.

6 October 2003


37th Meeting of National Steering Committee on Ozone Protection.

8-11 October 2003
2003 ODSONET Meeting, Phuket.

13-15 October 2003


Workshop on Control and Monitoring of ODS-Custom Consumption, Phuket.

16 October 2003


MAC Sector-air-cond workshop/refrigerants/ compressor distributors.

17 October 2003
Meeting with Refrigeration Sector.

18 October 2003
Meeting with Solvent Sector.

22 October 2003


Briefing and roundtable discussion on MAC Servicing Sector CFC Phase-Out, Putrajaya.

23 October 2003


Seminar HCFC Alternative and Energy Improvered, Putrajaya.

21-25 October 2003
Dissemination of poster, leaflets on ozone protection during Malaysia Environment Week celebration.

27-30 October 2003


Training for operator handling R&R MAC Servicing Workshop, Shah Alam.

8-14 November 2003
15th COP Meeting of MP, Nairobi.

10 November 2003
Working Group on MDI.

20 Disember 2003
Working Group on Refrigeration

Information on Air Pollutant Index - DOE MALAYSIA

Pengukuran Kualiti Udara- Jabatan Meteorologi Malaysia [MOSTI]

LAPORAN TAHUNAN KUALITI UDARA

1. Pengenalan

Sejumlah 22 stesen Rangkaian Pemonitoran Pencemaran Udara terletak di Semenanjung Malaysia dan Malaysia Timur. Bermula dengan hanya 2 stesen pada 1976, rangkaian ini telah berkembang tahun demi tahun. Pada masa yang sama, sejajar dengan keperluan semasa, parameter-parameter telah ditambah di dalam program pemerhatian ini di stesen-stesen terpilih. Kebanyakan stesen-stesen ini terletak agak jauh dari kawasan bandar bagi memastikan hanya keadaan ambien sahaja di pantau. (Rajah 1)

Kebanyakan stesen-stesen ini didirikan di kawasan sama dengan stesen klimatologi supaya pemerhatian kedua-dua parameter meteorologi dan pencemaran udara boleh dibuat serentak dan berterusan. Dengan ini memastikan set data yang komprehensif mengandungi kedua-dua data kualiti udara dan meteorologi boleh didapati bagi tujuan penilaian sebarang episod pencemaran udara.

Bahagian Kajian Alam Sekitar di Perkhidmatan Kajicuaca Malaysia menjalankan pemantauan kualiti udara di seluruh negara dan menilai data-data yang dikumpul dari rangkaiannya. Data dari rangkaian ini digunakan untuk mendokumentasikan arah aliran jangka-panjang dan mengesan perubahan signifikan dalam kepekatan udara untuk memberi amaran awal bencana alam sekitar.

Parameter-parameter yang diukurkan oleh Bahagian adalah:

Keasidan Air Hujan.

Aerosol.
Ozon Atmosfera.
Gas-gas Reaktif.

2. Keasidan Air Hujan

Pengukuran tetap dan bermetodologi komposisi kimia air hujan melalui rangkaian stesen dalam tempoh masa yang panjang memberi petunjuk kualiti udara termasuk arah aliran keasidan dalam negara serta mengenalpasti kawasan yang sedang menghadapi peningkatan amaun komponen basahan pemendapan berasid. Pengukuran tersebut akan menyumbang ke arah penentuan spesies keasidan bagi fluks pemendapan basah dan kering di tapak pengukuran yang mana akan menghala kepada pemahaman yang mendalam terhadapa isu-isu pengasidan atmosfera di rantau ini.

Biasanya keasidan air hujan dilaporkan sebagai pH. pH adalah pengukuran kepekatan ion hydrogen dalam cecair dan mempunyai skala di antara 0 - 14. Air hujan dari tapak yang bersih dan terpencil sedikit berasid dengan pH yang berubah antara 5.2 ke 6.0 disebabkan kehadiran asid semulajadi yang terlarut; oleh itu hujan dikatakan berasid jika pH kurang dari 5.2. Memandangkan jumlah air hujan berubah-ubah, kesemua nilai pH adalah volume weighted.

Perkhidmatan Kajicuaca Malaysia menggunakan sama ada Automatic Wet and Dry Fallout Collector atau Wet-Only Sampler untuk mengumpul air hujan di rangkaian ini. Sampel-sampel air hujan dikumpul dalam seminggu dan dihantar ke Jabatan Kimia Malaysia untuk analisa kimia terhadap anion dan kation prinsipal. Sejenis biosid, thymol digunakan untuk mencegah penguraian biologi.

pH Tahunan

Rajah 2 menunjukkan peta pH air hujan bagi tahun 2002. Amnya, negeri-negeri di bahagian baratan dan selatan Semenanjung Malaysia menerima hujan dengan kepekatan keasidan yang tinggi manakala bahagian-bahagian lain Semenanjung menerima hujan dengan pH antara 4.4 dan 5.2. Kawasan-kawasan yang mengalami tahap keasidan yang tinggi adalah sekitar Lembah Klang dan selatan Johor. Secara kebetulan, ini adalah kawasan-kawasan pembangunan dan perindustrian yang pesat dengan kepadatan penduduk yang tinggi.


Variasi pH Bulanan

Rajah 3 menunjukkan pH bulanan. Dari urutan peta-peta tersebut, secara amnya hujan dari kawasan pantai barat Semenanjung Malaysia lebih berasid berbanding kawasan pantai timur Semenanjung Malaysia dan keasidan air hujannya adalah tinggi semasa bulan Mac hingga Oktober. Pada bulan-bulan ini, bahagian utara baratan Semenanjung Malaysia menerima air hujan dengan pH antara 4.4 - 4.8 manakala bahagian tengah dan selatan menerima air hujan dengan pH kurang dari 4.4. Pada amnya, pH air hujan di Malaysia Timur adalah antara 4.8 - 5.6.

3. Aerosol

Aerosol atau jumlah zarah terampai (TSP) adalah zarah ampaian dalam udara dengan diameter kurang dari 100 mikrometer (m). TSP dengan diameter aerodinamik 10 mikrometer atau kurang digelar zarah PM10 dan ia boleh menjejaskan kesihatan.

Zarah Terampai Total (TSP)

Kepekatan TSP di ukur dengan menggunakan High-Volume Air Sampler di 14 stesen. Rajah 4 menunjukkan arah aliran muatan bulanan TSP. Kepekatan TSP di kebanyakan stesen adalah hampir kepada nilai purata jangka-panjang kecuali Alor Setar, Perai, Kuala Trengganu, Senai dan Bintulu yang mana menunjukkan paras agak tinggi dalam tahun 2002.

Jisim Zarah (PM-10)

Kepekatan Zarah PM-10 diukur di 8 stesen di rangkaian pemonitoran dengan menggunakan High-Volume PM-10 Sampler. Rajah 5 menunjukkan arah aliran bulanan kepekatan PM-10. Paras PM-10 yang dicatatkan di kesemua stesen hampir kepada nilai purata jangka-panjang.


4. Ozon Atmosfera

Ozon adalah gas yang sangat reaktif, dalam kuantiti yang sedikit di atmosfera. Kepekatan min boleh berubah dari sedikit hingga ratusan bahagian per billion (ppb) bergantung pada lokasi dan altitud. Di paras permukaan, ozon dianggap bahan pencemar sekunder yang menyebabkan episod-episod oksidan seperti jerebu dan asbut (smog). Di stratosfera, lapisan ozon mengurangkan kemudaratan radiasi ultra-lembayung yang menghampiri permukaan bumi. Secara global, ozon adalah gas rumah hijau yang menyumbang kepada pemanasan global.

Kolum Ozon Total (Total Ozone Column)

Kolum Ozon total harian di pantau secara automatik di Petaling Jaya dengan menggunakan alat Brewer Spectrophotometer. Rajah 6 menunjukkan pengukuran langsung matahari. Amaun Kolum Ozon Total yang diukur berubah antara 239 hingga 282 Dobson Unit (DU). Terdapat variasi bermusim dalam kepekatan ozon tetapi ia tidak begitu ketara seperti di kawasan-kawasan latitud tengah.

Profil Ozon Tegak (Vertical Ozone Profile )

Profil ozon tegak diukur di Lapangan Terbang Antarabangsa Kuala Lumpur (KLIA), Sepang dengan menggunakan sonar ozon (ozonesonde) yang dilepaskan pada setiap awal dan pertengahan bulan. Rajah 7 menunjukkan min bulanan profil ozon tegak. Profil-profil ozon menunjukkan minimum pada 15 kilometer atas paras laut (MSL) yang sepadan dengan lapisan atas tropopaus tropika. Atas 15 kilometer, paras ozon bertambah dengan mendadak hingga maksimum lebih kurang 27 km atas paras laut min.


5. Gas-gas Reaktif

Sekarang ini, Perkhidmatan Kajicuaca Malaysia memantau gas-gas sulfur dioksida (SO2) dan nitrogen dioksida (NO2) di Petaling Jaya dan Tanah Rata menggunakan pasif sampler.

Rajah 8 menunjukkan kepekatan mingguan bagi SO2 dan NO2 yang diukur di Petaling Jaya. Kepekatan SO2 berubah-ubah antara julat 2.0 ppb dan 9.0 ppb sepanjang tahun dengan tiada perbezaan mengikut musim. Kepekatan NO2 adalah tinggi dan berubah-ubah antara julat 14.5 ppbv dan 40.5 ppbv.

Rajah 9 menunjukkan kepekatan SO2 dan NO2 diukur di Tanah. Pada amnya, kepekatan gas-gas ini adalah rendah, jarang melampaui 3.1 ppbv.

continue- Indonesia in a haze over hotspots

Indonesia in a haze over hotspots