CARBON SEQUESTRATION PROJECTS IN AFRICA: POTENTIAL BENEFITS AND CHALLENGES TO SCALING UP

Source: EarthTrends Environmental Essay Competition Winner
Author: Rohit Jindal
Editor: Tom Damassa and Stephanie Hanson
Date: June 2006

Introduction

Carbon sequestration is the process of removing excess carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere (3.67 tons CO2 = 1 ton sequestered carbon). The Kyoto Protocol's Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) recognizes carbon sequestration through forestry as a way to mitigate global warming and also allows industrialized countries to offset their carbon emissions by investing in forestry projects in developing countries (UNFCCC, 2003). In addition, many private organizations are voluntarily promoting carbon sequestration projects to reduce their carbon emissions. Globally, carbon sequestration projects are now worth millions of dollars (see http://www.ecosystemmarketplace.com), including financial inflows for many developing countries. Thus, carbon sequestration projects present mutual benefits for environmental conservation and economic development opportunities in poor countries (UNEP, 2004; Rosa et al., 2003).

Carbon sequestration projects' economic and environmental benefits are particularly relevant for Africa, the world's poorest continent. African countries need increased investment to support poverty alleviation and infrastructure development. With a high dependence on land and forests for subsistence, these countries also require effective strategies to combat the growing threat of widespread natural resource degradation. Accordingly, efforts to mitigate climate change through carbon sequestration projects could bring in money both to raise local incomes and regenerate natural resources (Kituyi, 2002).

However, there are strong concerns that the growth in international carbon projects may bypass Africa, which contributed just three percent of the total global trade in carbon offsets in 2003-2004 and a negligible share in 2004-2005. This compares poorly with Asia and Latin America, which contributed 43 percent and 35 percent, respectively, during 2003-2004 (Lecoq and Capoor, 2005). Attracting more carbon investments to Africa is critical. The analysis of existing carbon sequestration projects in Africa may provide insight toward achieving this objective.

Carbon Sequestration Projects in Africa

This review covers 19 carbon sequestration projects in 16 countries in Africa (Table 1). Project details were collected from various sources: field research with local communities in Kenya and Mozambique, case studies, project documents, policy updates, and online databases of the World Resources Institute (http://climate.wri.org/sequestration.cfm), and the World Bank (http://www.carbonfinance.org). The latest information on carbon markets was obtained from Point Carbon (http://www.pointcarbon.com) and Katoomba Group's Ecosystem Marketplace (http://www.ecosystemmarketplace.com).

Of the 19 carbon sequestration projects in Africa, seven are based in Kenya, Uganda or Tanzania. This indicates that East Africa is currently the preferred region for international carbon investors. Project locations, however, span diverse agro-ecological zones and land uses, including rangelands (Community-Based Rangeland Rehabilitation for Carbon Sequestration, Sudan), farms (The International Small Group and Tree Planting Program, Tanzania), dense forests (Forest Rehabilitation Project in Mount Elgon and Kibale National Parks, Uganda), and Lake Victoria basin (Western Kenya Integrated Ecosystem Management Project). The adaptation of carbon sequestration projects to different climatic conditions can be both beneficial as well as harmful for the local ecology (see below). Many projects also follow a multi-sector approach, aiming to generate benefits in addition to carbon sequestration; examples include improving the energy situation in Burkina Faso (Sustainable Energy Management Project) or conserving biodiversity in Madagascar (Andasibe-Mantadia Biodiversity Corridor).

World Bank's BioCarbon Fund is currently the biggest investor of carbon sequestration projects in Africa (Table 1). Other prominent carbon investors in Africa are the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the Forest Absorbing Carbon Emissions (FACE) Foundation, and the European Union.

Information regarding the actual amount of carbon sequestered is available for 13 projects. Although these projects use different time lines, broad estimates indicate a total potential of approximately 35 million tons of CO2. Many projects will thus be able to generate carbon credits or offsets under the provisions of the Kyoto Protocol equal to the amount of carbon dioxide they sequester. The prevailing international prices for carbon credits range from $3.50 per ton CO2 at Chicago Climate Exchange to $15.80 per ton CO2 in various European markets. Carbon credits from carbon sequestration projects in Africa are therefore worth millions of dollars. At present, the Plan Vivo Project in Uganda and the Nhambita Community Carbon Project in Mozambique are already selling carbon credits to United Kingdom-based companies and sharing their carbon revenues with local farmers.

Potential Benefits

Carbon sequestration projects benefit global society by absorbing excess CO2 from the atmosphere. They also provide several additional advantages for the host country.

Sustainable Development: The Kyoto Protocol stipulates that all CDM projects, including carbon sequestration activities, should achieve sustainable development benefits for the host country (UNEP, 2004). Many researchers have subsequently documented livelihood and other development benefits of various carbon sequestration projects around the world (Rosa et al., 2003; Smith and Scherr, 2002). Most current carbon sequestration projects in Africa, however, were not created for compliance with the Kyoto Protocol, although they often follow broad CDM guidelines.

Major developmental benefits for local communities from these projects include an increased number of timber and non-timber forest products from regenerated forests, employment opportunities from forestry activities, and increased incomes from the sale of carbon credits. For instance, in the Nhambita Community Carbon Project in Mozambique, each participating household will receive a cash payment of $242.60 per hectare over the next seven years (or $34.70 per annum) for carbon sequestered by various land-use activities. This represents a significant increase in most household incomes and, additionally, provides access to a regular income source (Jindal, 2004). Similarly, in the International Small Group and Tree Planting Program, Tanzania, local farmers receive regular payments on the basis of the number of trees they can manage on their lands (for details, see http://www.tist.org). These examples demonstrate that carbon sequestration projects have the potential to achieve sustainable development in Africa—providing increased financial inflows for host countries while promoting environmental conservation.

Biodiversity Conservation: Many natural resource management projects are not viable, either because their benefits are uncompensated environmental services or because national governments and other local agencies do not have adequate funds to undertake conservation activities. Carbon sequestration projects can address both these concerns by paying for some of the services (such as carbon sequestration) and by providing financial assistance to national governments to invest in natural resource projects (Gutman, 2003). This is particularly relevant for Africa where precious natural resources, including biodiversity, are being rapidly lost due to a lack of conservation investments.

There is evidence that many carbon sequestration projects are able to provide necessary financial assistance for biodiversity conservation in Africa. For example, the Forest Rehabilitation Project is helping to conserve Mount Elgon and Kibale National Parks in Uganda (for details, see http://www.stichtingface.nl/). These parks were widely deforested during the political strife of the 1970s and 1980s when various ethnic groups sought refuge in them. The Forest Rehabilitation Project seeks to reverse this degradation by planting indigenous tree species and educating local communities on the value of conservation. In addition to carbon sequestration, these activities are helping to conserve the local biodiversity and protect endangered wildlife such as chimpanzees.

Ecological Restoration: Carbon sequestration through afforestation and reforestation can often generate other locally-valued ecosystem services such as improved water quality and reduced soil erosion and sedimentation (Scherr et al., 2004). For example, the Western Kenya Integrated Ecosystem Management Project aims to improve the ecology of Lake Victoria Basin by taking responsibility for erosion control and watershed management activities over an area of 900 square kilometers. A key project component is to encourage adoption of agroforestry and other land management techniques that sequester carbon and pay local communities for carbon credits.

It is important to note, however, that carbon sequestration projects may not always benefit local ecosystems. A global study on the hydrological effects of forestry projects found that annual runoff reduced by as much as 75 percent when grasslands were converted into eucalyptus plantations for carbon sequestration purposes (Farley et al., 2005). Considering that many parts of Africa are rain deficient, there is a need to locate carbon sequestration projects carefully and to encourage native plant species, which require less water, over exotics.

Improving Soils and Land Productivity: Sub-Saharan Africa contains large tracts of degraded lands with extremely low agricultural productivity, especially in the Sahel. For instance, average crop yields in sub-Saharan Africa are 1.5 tons per hectare for maize, 0.8 tons per hectare for sorghum, and 0.7 tons per hectare for millet (as compared to about 2.5 tons of maize per hectare in many other parts of the world). This is due to poor soil quality, which occurs when soil organic carbon is lost to the atmosphere, leading to desertification. Estimates of the affected area range from 3.47 to 3.97 billion hectares (Lal et al., 1998). The process can be reversed through improved agricultural practices such as conservation tillage, soil erosion control, establishment of appropriate shrubs and woody perennials, soil fertility enhancement, and crop residue management. These not only restore soil quality by increasing its organic content but also aid in mitigating climate change by returning more carbon to the soil. Thus, carbon sequestration activities that improve soil carbon content have the potential to improve productivity of large tracts of land in Africa. The USAID funded Sequestration of Carbon in Soil Organic Matter (SOCSOM) Project in Senegal is carrying out further research on this issue (see Table 1).

Constraints To Scaling Up

As stated earlier, Africa's share of international carbon business is much lower than many other developing regions. This section looks at constraints to scaling up carbon projects in Africa.

Tenure Insecurity: Tenure security is crucial for carbon sequestration projects. Without clear land rights, suppliers cannot make credible commitments to supply carbon offsets (Gutman, 2003). However, most African tenure systems are characterized by multiple tenures where several users may have access to different resources on the same piece of land (Lund, 2000). This can cause confusion as to who owns the sequestration rights from this land. In general, a duality often exists between customary and statutory land rights in many African countries (Woodhouse, 2003), making carbon investments risky. If carbon sequestration projects are taken up where property rights are unclear, more powerful people may take control of land occupied by poor people. The poor may not receive benefits from carbon sales and could even end up losing access to their land (Kerr et al., 2006).

Solving this problem is not easy; many land titling projects in Africa have failed where they were inconsistent with customary practices (e.g., Ensminger, 1996). One possible solution is working on common lands and sharing project benefits with the entire community. For example, the Nhambita Community Carbon Project in Mozambique deposits $40.50 per hectare in a community fund on the basis of the number of hectares that are brought under carbon sequestration. Since all land is registered in the name of the village chief and no household has individual titles, the entire community gains from these group payments (Jindal, 2004).

Transaction Costs: The transaction costs associated with negotiating, implementing, and monitoring small-scale carbon sequestration projects are usually high; transaction costs per ton of CO2 for large projects are typically much smaller. In addition, transaction costs increase when multiple parties are involved (Kerr et al., 2006). As a result, investors usually avoid small-scale projects and dealing with many small landowners. However, in Africa, most rural people are small landholders. Although many African countries have large tracts of privately held lands that present an opportunity for large carbon sequestration projects (White and Martin, 2002), sustainable development in poor African communities require carbon sequestration projects to be taken up with small landholders, despite their financial unattractiveness to investors.

The CDM guidelines are currently under revision to reduce transaction costs for small projects. The recommendations are to simplify the requirements for small-scale carbon sequestration projects that target low-income communities and generate emissions reductions of less than 8000 tons CO2 per annum (UNEP, 2004). Once finalized, the new guidelines may help reduce transaction costs associated with small-scale projects, enticing more investors to finance carbon sequestration projects in Africa. However, it is equally important for African countries to complement this effort by promoting local organizations as carbon intermediaries that can work directly with local communities. Costs can also be lowered by developing projects in communities where participatory development processes are already in place (Landell-Mills and Porras, 2002). For instance, the International Small Group and Tree Planting Program has reduced transaction costs by building upon previous community forestry initiatives in Tanzania.

Governance: Similar to other kinds of foreign investment, a stable and well-defined regulatory environment is necessary to promote international carbon investments. Considering that most carbon sequestration projects have a long gestation period, investments can be risky unless backed by long-term economic and political stability. Therefore, in order to attract and sustain international carbon projects, it is essential to have good governance practices at national and local levels.

However, many African countries face political volatility and unpredictable governance systems making carbon sequestration investments a risky proposition. Several countries face long-term civil strife, making international carbon sequestration investments difficult. Despite this, substantial improvement in economic governance has taken place across sub-Saharan Africa since the mid-1990s. Skilled political leadership, international support, and desire for peace have led to progress in addressing conflicts in countries such as Uganda, Mozambique and Rwanda (World Bank, 2005). These initiatives increase the confidence of investors, who may, as a result, plan more carbon sequestration projects in these countries.

Institutional Capacity: The Kyoto Protocol requires each developing country to establish a Designated National Authority (DNA) to promote carbon projects that are aligned with national development priorities, beneficial for local communities, and support general sustainable development goals (UNEP, 2004). One important factor in establishing a DNA is its ability to ensure a coherent, justifiable, and transparent assessment of carbon projects and to generate enough revenue through these assessments to finance itself. However, many governments in Africa are unable to do so due to an absence of the necessary political and legal frameworks. Some countries even lack a general awareness about carbon payment processes (Kituyi, 2002).

Although organizations like the United Nations Development Programme and the United Nations Environment Programme are already involved in training relevant government staff to identify, design, and implement new carbon projects, as well as other capacity building initiatives, much remains to be done. One possible solution is to include training and awareness building as an integral component of each carbon project. Therefore, apart from donor-led efforts, host countries should also be willing to invest in the training of their own staff. A downside of this strategy is a possible escalation in project overheads, which may be unacceptable to international investors.

Morocco's success story shows how such investments can yield higher carbon financial inflows. Since ratifying the Kyoto Protocol in 2002, Morocco has been actively involved in building institutional capacity. Its carbon portfolio now consists of 34 projects, including four sequestration projects. Although most projects are still in the planning phase, their estimated potential for carbon emissions reduction is about four million tons a year. Morocco is currently the first African country to be ranked in the top 10 international CDM host countries (UNEP and IETA, 2005).

Conclusions

The global demand for carbon credits will increase steadily as the first commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol (2008-12) draws near. Countries are exploring cost-effective measures to reduce carbon emissions and carbon sequestration is a viable option. The total market for carbon sequestration could be worth $300 million annually (Scherr et al., 2004). This represents a significant opportunity for economic development in Africa.

Although many African carbon sequestration projects are beneficial, expanding them beyond a few pilot schemes will be difficult unless challenges such as tenure insecurity, high transaction costs, political instability and a lack of institutional capacity, are addressed. Finally, it is worth noting that international carbon projects essentially represent an emerging market and not a grant-in-aid scheme. Only those countries that are well prepared and capable of participating in this competitive market will be able to fully take advantage of this new opportunity.

About the author (June, 2006): Mr. Jindal holds a M.Sc. in Resource Management (University of Edinburgh, UK) and is currently pursuing a Ph.D. in Environmental and Resource Economics at Michigan State University. He has conducted research projects for the World Agroforestry Center, Kenya, the University of Edinburgh, Natural Resource Institute, UK, and for NGOs in India. His research interests include the interface between economic development and environmental conservation and the emerging markets for environmental services and their impact on rural poor.

ACCOUNTING FOR BUSINESS GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS

Source: Greenhouse Gas Protocol: A corporate accounting and reporting standard (revised edition)
Author: Janet Raganathan and Pankaj Bhatia
Date: 2003

During the last decade concern has grown over the continued rise in anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) and the associated risks of climate change. Climate models predict that floods, droughts, and severe storms are likely to become more frequent and severe, costing agriculture harvests, economic progress, and lives . The most prominent international effort to date to reduce GHG emissions is the Kyoto Protocol, an international treaty signed in 1997, which specified national GHG targets for countries that contribute the largest amount of GHGs (Annex I countries). As of November 2003, 103 countries, representing 43. 9% of 1990 CO2 emissions, have signed. If ratified, the participating industrialized countries will be required to meet GHG emissions reduction targets between 2008 and 2012.

Business, as a major contributor to global GHG emissions, will need to play a significant role in helping countries achieve their reduction targets under the Kyoto Protocol. Even if countries like Australia, Russia, and the U.S. do not ratify the Protocol, businesses are being encouraged to take action to reduce GHG emissions - albeit on a voluntary basis. For many businesses, compiling a comprehensive inventory of their GHG emissions is the first key step in developing an effective GHG management and reduction strategy. If developed properly, a GHG inventory will improve the company’s understanding of its GHG emissions profile and thereby its potential GHG liability or “exposure” in a carbon constrained economy.

Why Climate Change Matters to Business

A company’s GHG exposure is increasingly becoming a management issue in light of heightened scrutiny by reinsurers, climate related shareholder resolutions, and the emergence of environmental regulations/policies designed to reduce GHG emissions. In the context of future GHG regulations, significant GHG emissions in a company's value chain may result in increased costs (upstream) or reduced sales (downstream), even if the reporting organization itself is not directly subject to regulations. Thus, investors may view significant indirect emissions up or downstream of a company's operations as potential liabilities that need to be managed and reduced.

In an effort to curb GHG emissions from business, market-based approaches are emerging in some parts of the world. These typically take the form of emissions trading programs that set GHG targets or caps on participating companies. Companies facing high costs in reducing their own GHG emissions can purchase allowances or credits from another party, to meet its own target. Trading programs are being implemented on both a mandatory and voluntary basis. The forthcoming European Union community wide GHG Emissions Allowance Trading Scheme will require each Member State to impose binding caps on emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) from certain industrial installations. Participation in the UK Emissions Trading Scheme and the Chicago Climate Exchange is voluntary, but once companies have elected to join the targets are binding and penalties exist for non-compliance. While trading programs typically focus on business operations in a specified geographical region, some companies are setting voluntary GHG reduction targets (see Figure 1) for their global operations. These targets may be set independently by the company or as part of a formal program such as the WWF Climate Savers, Business Leaders Initiative on Climate Change, and EPA Climate Leaders program.

In order to participate in these mandatory and voluntary programs, businesses need to first establish a robust and credible GHG inventory system for accounting and reporting their GHG emissions. Just like financial reporting, both business and external stakeholders benefit if these GHG accounting systems are based on common standards. For business, it reduces costs if their accounting system is capable of meeting different internal and external information requirements. For external stakeholders, it improves the consistency, transparency and understandability of reported information, making it easier to track and compare progress over time. For companies with global operations, the standardization of GHG accounting rules across countries is important in order to reduce the cost of responding to an array of different domestic policies.

Greenhouse Gas Protocol Initiative: Accounting and Reporting Standards for Business

The Greenhouse Gas Protocol Initiative (GHG Protocol) is a multi-stakeholder partnership of businesses, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), governments, and others convened by the World Resources Institute (WRI), a US-based environmental NGO, and the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD), a Geneva-based coalition of 165 international companies. Launched in 1998, GHG Protocol’s mission is to develop internationally accepted greenhouse gas (GHG) accounting and reporting standards for business and to promote their adoption by businesses and policy-makers alike.

A first edition of the GHG Protocol Corporate Accounting and Reporting Standard was published in October 2001, with a second edition scheduled for release in January 2004. The standard was designed to serve multiple business goals (see Box 1) and addressees a range of accounting issues, such as:

* Defining GHG accounting and reporting boundaries relative to upstream and downstream activities in the value chain (see Box 2);

* Accounting and consolidating emissions from partially owned entities such as joint ventures;

* Calculating emissions from specific sources;

* Tracking performance over time in a dynamic business environment (e.g., mergers, acquisitions and divestitures etc.);

* Setting GHG reduction targets; and

* Publicly reporting GHG emissions.

The GHG Protocol corporate standard has been widely adopted around the globe, with more than 100 companies using it to compile a GHG emissions inventory (see Box 3). The standard has been used as the basis for the accounting and reporting systems of numerous climate programs, including: US EPA's Climate Leaders program, WWF's Climate Savers program, California Climate Action Registry, World Economic Forum Global GHG Registry, the UK's emissions trading scheme, Chicago Climate Exchange, and the French REGES Protocol. GHG Protocol has also begun work on a new standard addressing the quantification of GHG mitigation projects that will be used as offsets or credits in trading programs.

Looking Ahead

Irrespective of whether Russia ratifies the Kyoto Protocol, the European Union trading program will proceed and major emitters of CO2 will need to reduce their emissions. In parallel, voluntary industry, NGO and government efforts to reduce the GHG emissions of business in countries such as USA and Australia will continue. These will likely be supplemented by mandatory regulations in specific states, such as the proposed Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative in several Northeast states of the U.S., which intends to cap CO2 emissions from fossil fuel-fired power plants. Thus it makes sense for business, no matter where it operates, to take the first important step of establishing a GHG emissions inventory. This will enable them to more effectively anticipate and manage both the risk as well as the opportunities that climate change creates in the market place.

Global Desertification Meeting Yields Mixed Results

By Amy Cassara on Monday, September 17, 2007.
Soucer : Earth Trends Environmental Information



On Saturday, the governing body for the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) concluded its 8th Conference of Parties (COP) meeting in Madrid. While organizers were happy to report the passage of a new 10-year plan of action and the appointment of a new Secretary-General, the conference's failure to approve a final budget inspired criticism from some environmental groups.

The UNCCD entered into force in 1996 and is dedicated to addressing the problems of land degradation in the world's drylands. Along with two other international agreements--the Convention on Biodiversity and the Framework Convention on Climate Change--the UNCCD was created in response to a call from the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) at the 1992 Rio de Janeiro "Earth Summit."

Unlike its sister agreements, however, the UNCCD has faced funding insecurities since its inception. The convention was not able to secure a consistent funding mechanism until 2002, when an agreement was reached to use Global Environment Facility monies, and its core budget was cut significantly in 2006-2007. Last week, the proposed budget failed to pass because the Japanese delegation was unable to approve a 5% increase in Euro terms (IISD 2007). This may have been due to the surprise resignation of Japan’s prime minister. The budget discussions will resume at an extraordinary meeting during the upcoming UN General Assembly meeting in New York.

Some participants to the convention are hopeful that the proposed budget will pass easily at this session based on the strength of the UNCCD’s new 10-year plan and the promising appointment of a new Secretary-General. Others worry that the Convention, which primarily represents developing country concerns, will continue to experience the resource cuts that have become increasingly common in development aid and multilateral processes (IISD 2007).

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment defines desertification as "a persistent reduction in the services provided by dryland ecosystems." Drylands cover more than 40 percent of the earth's surface and are home to at least 2 billion people; more than 10-20 percent of these lands are considered degraded. Considered a "crisis of global proportions" by the United Nations, desertification could displace more than 50 million people in the next decade. The 10-year strategic plan adopted by the UNCCD last week will work to reverse desertification through awareness-raising, improved policy frameworks, science and technology, and capacity-building exercises.


RELATED LINKS:

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

Success Stories in Combatting Desertification

EarthTrends

UNCCD Convention Status by Country

Report: AN ECOSYSTEM APPROACH TO DRYLANDS

Carbon Storage in Vegetation and Soils in Drylands

UN Highlights Links Between Desertification and Climate Change

What is CFC

Soucers : Department Of Environmental (DOE)
Published :18 Sept,2007

DO YOU KNOW.......

Our earth is protected by a thin ozone layer which filters out harmful ultra-violet (UV) rays

WHAT IS CFC?

CFC or Chloroflourocarbon is a chemical compound that contains atoms of carbon, flourine and chlorine. The chlorine atoms from CFCs can deplete the ozone layer and reduce its ability to protect against the ultra violet radiation consequently. The increase of ultra violet radiation from the sun will render serious negative effects to human and ecosystem such as increase cases of skin cancer, cataract and reduced immunity.
MONTREAL PROTOCOL ON SUBSTANCES THAT DEPLETE THE OZONE LAYER

The world community realised the importance of protecting the ozone layer and has acted decisively by committing themselves to phase out the use and production of ozone depleting substances (ODS) through an international treaty: the Montreal Protocol. Malaysia is one of the 190 countries that had signed the Protocol.

WHAT IS IN YOUR MOBILE AIR-CONDITIONER?

CFC 12 is the chemical use in the mobile air-conditioner (MAC) as refrigerant. It is also known commercially as R12 or FREON gas. Generally, CFC 12 is released into the atmosphere before the service for MAC is carried out.

WHEN CFC WILL BE PHASED OUT?

All developed countries stopped producing and consuming CFCs in 1996. Malaysia have stopped producing CFCs Mobile Air-conditioning System in year 2000 and ultimately will phase out the import of CFCs starting January 2010 as mandatory date under the Montreal Protocol.


WHAT SHOULD YOU DO TO PROTECT THE OZONE LAYER AND YOURSELF?


· Have your CFC-12 MAC system is serviced regularly by a trained technician
· Have your CFC-12 MAC system serviced at an accredited service centre that is equipped with an approved refrigerant recovery and recycling machine
· Do not vent any refrigerant from your CFC-12 MAC system. It is an offence under the Environmental Quality (Refrigerant Management) Regulations, 1999
· Any new installation of CFC-12 MAC is prohibited under the Environmental Quality (refrigerant Management) Regulations, 1999
· Any person who handles CFC refrigerant from A MAC system must be trained and must possess an approved refrigerant recovery and recycling machine.
· Make sure that your HFC-134A MAC System is serviced at an accredited service centre by a trained technician to avoid unscrupulous practice of topping up your MAC with CFC-12 and being charged for the price of HFC-134A refrigerant
· Make sure that your HFC-134A MAC is not refilled with CFC-12 refrigerant because it will reduce the lifespan of your HFC-134A MAC compressor drastically or damage the MAC system due to unsuitability of the combination of CFC-12 refrigerant with the PAG oil used in the HFC-134A MAC system.

Kerangka PenaatanMontreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

I. Metode Pendekatan
1. Pemantauan Lapangan Pemantauan pelaksanaan kebijakan penghapusan bahan-bahan perusak lapisan ozon serta pembagian tanggung jawab pengawasan pemerintah baik secara horizontal maupun vertikal.
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Pemantauan terhadap industri-industri maupun kegiatan lainnya dalam hal konsumsi bahan-bahan perusak lapisan ozon (BPO). Montreal Protocol menghendaki emisi CFC di negara-negara industri dikurangi setengahnya menjelang tahun 1998, dan emisi halon menjelang tahun 1992 ditentukan harus sama dengan taraf emisi tahun 1986, serta mencegah pemindahan produksi dengan maksud menghindari peraturan.
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Memeriksa kelengkapan dokumen resmi untuk kegiatan impor/ekspor bahan-bahan kimia yang dapat merusak lapisan ozon serta barang yang diatur tata niaga impornya berdasarkan Kep. Menperindag No. 411/MPP/Kep/9/1998, agar tidak melampaui jumlah keseluruhan yang disepakati pada protokol serta sesuai dengan bahan-bahan yang diawasi sebagaimana tercantum pada Annex A Montreal Protocol.
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Melakukan pemeriksaan di lapangan, untuk mengecek kesesuaian antara jumlah/angka yang tercantum pada dokumen eksport/import BPO dan komoditi barang ekspor/impor yang sistem kerjanya menggunakan BPO dengan kenyataan ukuran yang sebenarnya, sehingga memenuhi jumlah sesuai kesepakatan protokol, terutama pada jalur perdagangan antara suatu negara.
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Menerapkan prosedur persetujuan maupun prosedur keputusan dalam hal kegiatan ekspor/impor BPO. Karena kebutuhan Indonesia terhadap bahan kimia yang dapat merusak ozon masih diimpor maka berdasarkan Kep. Menperindag No. 411/MPP/Kep/9/1998 Pasal 1 butir 1, sebagai berikut:
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• Dalam hal pelaksana impor oleh Importir Terdaftar (IT) mengenai pelayanan purna jual lemari es dari tipe rumah tangga termasuk tipe kompressi, tipe penyerapan listrik, dan lainnya yang memerlukan CFC-12. yang diatur tata niaga impornya, harus mendapat persetujuan Direktur Jenderal Perdagangan Internasional dengan pertimbangan usulan dari Direktur Jenderal Industri Logam, Mesin dan Kimia.

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• Dalam hal pelaksana impor oleh Importir Terdaftar (IT) mengenai impor metil bromida sebagai fimigan untuk karantina, penggunaan di gudang dan pra pengapalan, harus mendapat persetujuan Direktur Jenderal Perdagangan Internasional berdasarkan pertimbangan dari Menteri Pertanian.
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Pengecekan lapangan yang dilakukan menurut wilayah pengawasan baik dengan metode proaktif maupun pasif, terutama pada jalur lintas batas perhubungan/perdagangan antar wilayah dalam suatu negara ataupun lintas batas antar negara lainnya.

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2. Pelaporan Menyampaikan laporan mengenai kegiatan pemantauan serta tindakan-tindakan pelaksanaan yang merupakan ketentuan protocol maupun keefektifannya dalam memenuhi tujuan protocol.
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Membuat daftar program/kegiatan sebagai upaya penghapusan bahan perusak ozon (BPO) secara bertahap, serta laporan hasil pelaksanaannya, BPO serta target konsumsi BPO yang telah dicapai setiap tahunnya.
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Menyampaikan laporan hasil-hasil penelitian mengenai teknologi untuk mengembangkan proses recovery, recycling dari bahan-bahan yang dikontrol menurut protokol, ataupun upaya lain melalui pengurangan emisinya.
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Setiap Pihak menyampaikan data statistik kepada sekretariat protokol, mengenai produksi, impor dan ekspor dari bahan-bahan yang dikontrol sejak tahun 1986, atau estimasi terbaik yang memungkinkan mengenai suatu data jika data aktual tidak tersedia.
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Setiap Pihak menyampaikan data statistik kepada sekretariat protokol, mengenai produksi tahunannya (terpisah dengan data jumlah BPO yang dimusnahkan oleh teknologi), impor dan ekspor kepda suatu Pihak dan non Pihak. Untuk selanjutnya data tersebut disampaikan paling lambat sembilan bulan setelah tahun terakhir dari data yang berhubungan.
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Membuat laporan hasil monitoring konsentrasi ozon yang dilakukan oleh Stasiun-Stasiun Pengamat Atmosfer.
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Membuat laporan mengenai kasus atau akibat penggunaan BPO yang berpengaruh terhadap kesehatan manusia dan lingkungan melalui pengambilan sampel dan teknik-teknik lain.
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Menyampaikan hasil kegiatan pemantauan terhadap pemeriksaan dokumen resmi dalam hal ekspor/impor BPO serta barang yang dalam sistem kerjanya mempergunakan BPO.
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Membuat laporan mengenai data industri yang masih memproduksi bahan-bahan kimia yang dapat merusak lapisan ozon (ODS=Ozone Depleting Substance) ataupun memiliki potensi/kemampuan merusak lapisan ozon (ODP=Ozone Depleting Potential), yang mencakup informasi mengenai:
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- Data jumlah produksi yang dihasilkan setiap tahunnya
- Data wilayah pemasaran ataupun data konsumen yang memerlukan
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Karena kebutuhan Indonesia terhadap bahan kimia yang dapat merusak ozon masih diimpor dari beberapa negara maka diperlukan data mengenai:
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- Data negara asal industri yang menghasilkan BPO yang diimpor oleh konsumen/industri yang ada di Indonesia.
- Data jenis bahan dan jumlah yang diimpor oleh industri/konsumen tersebut
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Membuat laporan mengenai data industri yang masih menggunakan bahan-bahan kimia untuk proses produksinya baik ODS ataupun ODP, antara lain: industri kulkas, kosmetik/deodorant (aerosol), plastik atau busa (untuk bahan produksi), pemadam kebakaran, AC ruangan/mobil, pelarut/pembersih microchip. Data yang diperlukan mencakup informasi tentang:
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- Data jumlah bahan baku ODS ataupun ODP yang dibutuhkan
- Data mengenai isi kandungan/komposisi bahan baku ODS ataupun ODP yang digunakan serta sistem kerja dari barang yang diproduksi tersebut


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3. Bentuk Partisipasi Pemerintah
• Melarang impor peralatan yang mengandung ODS (misalnya aerosol untuk industri kosmetik, yang mengandung CFC=ChloroFlouro Carbon sebagai gas pendorong, dan lain-lain).
• Mendemonstrasikan/uji coba teknologi baru (misalnya: CFC-11 recycling, dan lain-lain).
• Menyusun peraturan yang terkait dengan upaya penghapusan penggunaan BPO yang dilakukan secara bertahap.
• Mengadakan desiminasi pengetahuan dan seminar-seminar untuk mensosialisasikan bahan-bahan perusak ozon, ketentuan-ketentuan ataupun peraturan-peraturan terkait mengenai larangan penggunaan BPO.
• Melakukan penelitian dalam bidang kesehatan, lingkungan ataupun biologi mengenai dampak dari penggunaan BPO.
• Memberikan reward dan punisment terhadap industri-industri dalam hal ketaatan mereka untuk menurunkan tingkat konsumsinya terhadap BPO.
• Memberikan insentif kepada perusahaan-perusahaan untuk mengembangkan dan memasarkan pengganti CFC secepat mungkin.
• Melaksanakan berbagai upaya tersebut melalui langkah-langkah kelembagaan, pengaturan, insentif, kesadaran, informasi serta pemantauan

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Industri
• Melatih pegawai/personil-nya agar cocok dan terampil dalam menggunakan teknologi baru yang bersahabat dengan lingkungan.
• Merangsang dan mengembangkan sistem yang sesuai dengan teknologi non ODS (misalnya gas pendorong alternatif untuk aerosol, dan lain-lain).
• Melakukan tindakan antisipasi yang memperhatikan usia hidup dari alat yang dipakai untuk pengurangan emisinya, serta penggunaan bahan-bahan alternatif

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Individu (setiap orang)
• Tidak menggunakan atau sesedikit mungkin menggunakan meubel baik di kantor maupun di rumah yang menggunakan busa. Gunakan bahan organik seperti kapas, sabut kelapa, bulu angsa, dan lain-lain.
• Menggunakan kemasan yang tidak terbuat dari sterofoam, gunakan kertas atau bahan organik seperti daun, dan lain-lain.
• Memperbaiki Air Conditionong (AC) ataupun lemari es yang rusak sehingga zat pendingin tidak dilepaskan ke udara.
• Menanam pepohonan di sekitar tempat tinggal / kantor, selain untuk menyejukkan ruangan sehingga tidak memerlukan AC, juga akan menambah oksigen (O2).
• Memilih bengkel yang dapat mendaur-ulang zat pendingin, jika alat pendingin rusak

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4. Program Pendidikan dan Peningkatan Kesadaran Masyarakat Mengadakan pendidikan lingkungan pada siswa-siswa sekolah kejuruan. Pendidikan lingkungan pada sekolah kejuruan diperlukan, karena sejalan dengan tuntutan internasional di masa depan bukan hanya mutu produk atau jasa pelayanan saja yang menjadi perhatian melainkan juga proses produksinya, karena pada era pasar bebas, hanya produk dan jasa yang tidak menimbulkan dampak negatif terhadap lingkungan yang akan dapat diterima oleh negara-negara konsumen.
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Pelatihan dan seminar yang melibatkan pengambil kebijakan, untuk mensosialisasikan dan mengimplementasikan upaya penghapusan BPO serta peraturan terkait lainnya.
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Mengintegrasikan pendidikan lingkungan dengan mata pelajaran terkait di sekolah mulai pendidikan dasar dan menengah.
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Menyampaikan pesan layanan masyarakat di media elektronik dan cetak, terutama dalam hal jenis-jenis bahan perusak ozon maupun kegiatan-kegiatan yang dapat meningkatkan emisi akibat penggunaan BPO.
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Seminar dan ceramah yang berkaitan dengan upaya penghapusan BPO
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Peningkatan kesadaran masyarakat melalui pembuatan brosur, dan sayembara pembuatan video klip mengenai upaya penghapusan BPO.
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Keterlibatan masyarakat dalam setiap program-program penghapusan BPO mulai tahap perencanaan serta pengelolaan selanjutnya

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II. Insentif dan Pendanaan
1. Insentif Negara berkembang yang konsumsi bahan perusak lapisan ozon-nya (BPO-nya) lebih rendah dari 0,3 kg per kapita per tahun berhak mendapat bantuan dalam pelaksanaan penghapusan BPO-nya termasuk Indonesia.
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Negara berkembang dapat meninggalkan teknologi tua yang menyebabkan pencemaran dan menggunakan teknologi baru yang aman bagi lingkungan, melalui mekanisme alih teknologi internasional termasuk pelatihan teknis, insentif perdagangan, usaha patungan, bantuan multi dan bilateral.
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Para penanda-tangan protokol dapat memberikan akses khusus ke pasar untuk pengganti CFC yang diproduksi oleh negara-negara berkembang, sementara itu membatasi produk-produk yang mengandung atau dibuat dengan CFC.
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Negara-negara maju dapat membantu memberi lisensi atau pengalihan hak paten untuk teknologi pengganti, baik dengan langsung membeli paten atau untuk produk dan proses baru dan menyediakannya untuk negara-negara berkembang, atau secara tidak langsung dengan menawarkan pembebasan pajak atau pembebasan dengan peraturan kepada perusahaan-perusahaan yang secara langsung mengalihkan teknologi pengganti CFC yang mereka miliki.
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Negara-negara berkembang dapat dibantu untuk menilai manfaat dari segi teknik dan ekonomi dari berbagai teknologi pengganti CFC, untuk menentukan mana yang paling sesuai bagi mereka.
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Penghapusan utang luar negeri dapat dikaitkan dengan pembatasan CFC. Kepatuhan pada protokol dapat dianggap sebagai syarat-syarat yang diperlukan atau yang harus dipenuhi dalam penghapusan utang luar negeri

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2. Pendanaan Untuk melaksanakan Montreal Protocol sebagai upaya penghapusan bahan-bahan perusak ozon, Pemerintah Indonesia menggunakan dana APBN. Pemerintah Indonesia juga telah menerima bantuan dana dari Multilateral Fund (MLF) yang dibentuk khusus menangani masalah penghapusan BPO. Selanjutnya dana tersebut disalurkan melalui UNDP, UNIDO, dan World Bank (WB), tiga badan dunia tersebut bertindak sebagai implementing agency. Bantuan tersebut dalam bentuk hibah (grant) yang disampaikan langsung kepada perusahaan yang akan mengganti teknologi (menggunakan BPO ke teknologi tanpa BPO) dalam proses produksinya
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• Pendanaan yang dibutuhkan untuk menjalankan protokol ini, termasuk untuk menjalankan fungsi-fungsi yang berhubungan dengan kesekretariatan, akan diperoleh dari kontribusi Para Pihak.
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• Para Pihak, pada pertemuan pertamanya akan menetapkan kesepakatan pendanaan untuk menjalankan protokol ini
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Global Environment Facility (GEF), mulai berjalan untuk memberikan hibah dan pinjaman berbunga rendah untuk membantu negara-negara berkembang melindungi dan mengelola lingkungan, dimana perlindungan lapisan ozon menjadi salah satu tujuan khususnya

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Mekanisme Pendanaan :
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Prosedur yang diterapkan WB adalah dengan sistem reimburse, artinya bahwa perusahaan yang mendapat bantuan harus membiayai keperluan penggantian teknologi yang telah mendapat persetujuan Komite Eksekutif
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Prosedur UNDP dan UNIDO menggunakan sistem bantuan langsung, yaitu proses pembelian dan pemasangan teknologi, yang telah mendapat persetujuan perusahaan, dilaksanakan oleh implementing agency sampai teknologi tersebut siap beroperasi

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• Pemberi pinjaman multilateral mendukung pencapaian tujuan protokol, misalnya dengan memasukkan potensi untuk pengganti CFC sebagai kriteria untuk penilaian proyek, mengadakan alih teknologi dengan cara yang cepat sebagai suatu persyaratan untuk pendanaan.
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• Subsidi langsung dapat diberikan untuk produk-produk bebas CFC. Misalnya dengan pemberian hibah untuk pembuatan pengganti yang digunakan untuk lemari es yang bebas CFC.

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III. Sanksi
Sanksi yang diberikan dapat terkait dengan Keputusan Menteri Perindustrian dan Perdagangan No. 110/1998 tentang Larangan Memproduksi dan Memperdagangkan Bahan Perusak Lapisan Ozon serta Memproduksi dan Memperdagangkan Barang Baru yang Menggunakan Bahan Perusak Lapisan Ozon, adalah sebagai berikut:
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• Larangan untuk memproduksi bahan perusak lapisan ozon (Lampiran I Kep. Menperindag No. 110/1998)
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• Larangan untuk memproduksi barang yang dalam sistem kerjanya memerlukan bahan perusak lapisan ozon
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• Produksi barang baru wajib menggunakan bahan yang tidak merusak lapisan ozon
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• Barang baru yang tidak merusak lapisan ozon diwajibkan menggunakan logo sebagaimana tercantum dalam Lampiran III dan IV Kep. Menperindag No. 110/1998.
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• Bahan dan Barang sebagaimana ketentuan di atas, yang masih ada setelah ditetapkannya Keputusan ini (tanggal 27 Januari 1998) hanya boleh diperdagangkan sampai dengan 1 Januari 2005

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Perusahaan yang melanggar ketentuan tersebut di atas, dikenakan sanksi administrasi berupa pencabutan Izin Usaha dan sanksi lainnya sesuai perundang-undangan yang berlaku.
Ketentuan lain mengenai pengecualian terhadap larangan di atas terkait dengan Kep. Menperindag No. 411/MPP/Kep/9/1998, adalah sebagai berikut:
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• Pelayanan purna jual lemari es dari tipe rumah tangga termasuk tipe kompressi, tipe penyerapan listrik, dan lainnya yang memerlukan CFC-12, masih diperkenankan impor CFC-12 sampai dengan 31 Desember 2003 sebanyak-banyaknya 700 ton melalui Importir Terdaftar (IT)
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• Metil bromida dengan nomor HS. 2903.30.000 = CH3Br/Metil Bromida (turunan Fluorinasi, Brominasi atau Iodinasi dari HC Asiklik) sepanjang sebagai fimigan untuk karantina, penggunaan di gudang dan pra pengapalan, diperkenankan impor melalui Importir Terdaftar (IT)
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Sanksi terhadap pelanggaran dalam hal implementasi Konvensi ini dapat juga didasarkan kepada Pasal 43 ayat (1), (2), dan (3) serta Pasal 44 ayat (1) dan (2) Undang-Undang No. 23 Tahun 1997 tentang Pengelolaan Lingkungan

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IV. Kelembagaan
Tingkat Nasional • Kementerian Lingkungan Hidup sebagai National Focal Point.
• Departemen Luar Negeri
• Kementerian Pertahanan dan Keamanan
• Departemen Pertambangan dan Energi
• Departemen Perindustrian dan Perdagangan
• Departemen Keuangan (Direktorat Jenderal Bea dan Cukai)
• Departemen Pertanian (Komisi Pestisida dan Karantina)
• Departemen Kehutanan
• Departemen Kesehatan
• Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia (LIPI)
• Lembaga Penerbangan dan Antariksa Nasional (LAPAN)
• Badan Pengkajian dan Penerapan Teknologi (BPPT)
• Badan Meteorologi dan Geofisika
• BAPEDAL Daerah
• Dinas Pemadam Kebakaran
• Perguruan Tinggi/berbagai universitas
• Pengusaha serta Pihak Swasta, termasuk LSM

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Tingkat Internasional • Sekretaris Jenderal Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa (Secretary-General of the United Nations) dianggap sebagai Depositary dari Konvensi ini dan Protokolnya.
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• UNDP, UNIDO, dan World Bank (WB), tiga badan dunia tersebut bertindak sebagai implementing agency.
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• Global Environment Facility (GEF)
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• United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

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V. Target Waktu Penataan
Protokol ini diberlakukan sejak tanggal 1 Januari 1989, bila paling sedikit ada sebelas instrumen ratifikasi penerimaan persetujuan Protokol ini atau pencapaian telah didepositkan oleh suatu negara atau organisasi ekonomi regional dan menggambarkan paling sedikit dua puluh tiga dari konsumsi global bahan-bahan yang dikontrol pada tahun 1986, dan termasuk dalam paragraph 1 Artikel 17 dari Konvensi telah dipenuhi
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Dalam hal kondisi yang tidak dipenuhi pada tanggal tersebut, Protokol diberlakukan pada hari kesembilan puluh pada tanggal dimana kondisi telah dipenuhi

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VI. Ketentuan Ketentuan Khusus sesuai Muatan Konvensi
• Terhitung mulai awal bulan ke tujuh dan seterusnya sejak disepakati, tingkat produksi/konsumsi Kelompok I Annex A tidak boleh melebihi angka pada Tahun 1986. Toleransi sebesar 10% dari angka Tahun 1986 tersebut hanya diberikan untuk tujuan rasionalisasi industri dan konsumsi dalam negeri para pihak
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• Terhitung mulai awal bulan ke tigapuluh tujuh dan seterusnya, tingkat produksi/konsumsi bahan yang termasuk Kelompok II Annex A, tidak boleh melebihi angka pada Tahun 1986. Toleransi sebesar 10% dari angka Tahun 1986 tersebut hanya diberikan untuk kebutuhan dasar domestik dan rasionalisasi industrinya
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• Sejak 1 Juli 1993 sampai 30 Juni 1994, tingkat produksi/konsumsi bahan Kelompok I Annex A tidak boleh lebih dari 80% angka pada Tahun 1986. Toleransi sebesar 10% dari ketentuan tersebut hanya diberikan untuk keperluan dasar domestik dan rasionalisasi industrinya
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• Sejak 1 Juli 1994 sampai 30 Juni 1999 dan setelahnya, tingkat konsumsi/produksi bahan Kelompok I Annex A tidak boleh melampaui 50% dari angka Tahun 1986. Toleransi sebesar 15% dari ketentuan tersebut hanya diberikan untuk keperluan dasar domestik dan rasionalisasi industrinya

Ministry to charge companies over Lojing environs damage

MACHANG: Eight companies given concessions to develop the Lojing Highlands at Gua Musang will be charged with endangering the environment early next month

The National Resources and Environment Ministry will charge the eight with several counts of polluting the rivers and streams in the area, the ministry's parliamentary secretary Datuk Sazmi Miah said.

He said the investigation papers were completed and the prosecution was now in the midst of fine-tuning the case.

“We needed a long time to build up a case against the errant companies because we faced all kinds of constraints and implications, as the issue concerned both state and private land,” Sazmi said after opening the Risda “Plantation Day” celebrations at the Air Belaga mini-estate here yesterday.

He added that several officials with the state government, including state executive councillors, could be subpoenaed as witnesses.

On the Pasir Puteh district council, which allegedly ignored a warning from the state department of environment (DOE) to not conduct open burning at its solid waste landfill in Bukit Gedombak, Sazmi said such an incident should not have occurred.

He said the council should have taken a proactive step to protect the environment under its jurisdiction.

If the council was facing difficulty disposing the waste, it should have liased with the DOE or ministry, he said.

In a related development, council secretary Nik Mustapa Nik Hassan claimed he was unaware of the issue of air pollution.

He said the Federal Government was scheduled to take over the management of all landfills and waste disposal sites from the local authorities next year so it should no longer be an issue.

State DOE director Mokhtar Abdul Majid had informed the council to cover up the waste at Bukit Gedombak with sand and to control open-burning activities.

USM develops air filter system

PENANG: Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) has developed a practical and cost-effective method of tackling air pollution.

Local researchers have developed a workable system, known as Rice Husk Ash-Based Sorbent/Catalyst As A Novel Industrial Gas Cleaning Technology, to this end.

The innovation won USM the most distinguished Higher Education Minister Award during the recent International Exposition of Research and Inventions of Institutions of Higher Learning (Pecipta) 2007, held at the Kuala Lumpur Convention Centre.


Pollutant remover: Dr Lee and USM School of Chemical Engineering lecturer associate professor Dr Azlina Harun showing a model of the air filter at their campus Monday.
USM School of Chemical Engineering lecturer Prof Dr Abdul Rahman Mohamed initiated the research work seven years ago.

Project leader and department lecturer Dr Lee Keat Teong said the system was ready for commercialisation.

“We are even prepared to market this system in the United States,” he said.

The technology requires a custom-built model that channels the gas or waste from any agricultural factory to a filter bag, flowing through an absorber made from the ash of rice husks.

“It can remove 100% of the air pollutant,” Dr Lee said after a press conference to announce the outcome of the Pecipta event held in Kuala Lumpur from Aug 10 to 12.

Dr Lee said the rice-husk ash method could be used to remove pollutants, such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide from the burning of industrial fuels, which caused acid rain and global warming.